Chapter 8

Data Analysis and Interpretation

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 8.1 DATA PROCESSING
The goal of any research is to provide information out of raw data.
The raw data after collection has to be processed and analyzed in line with
the outline (plan) laid down for the purpose at the time of developing the
research plan.
Response on measurement instruments (words, check mark etc.) conveys
little information as such.
The compiled data must be classified, processed, analyzed and interpreted
carefully before their complete meanings and implications can be
understood.
Data processing involves the transformation of the raw data in to some
processed form to facilitate analysis.
A careful and systematic processing will highlight the important
characteristics of the data facilitating comparisons and render it suitable
for further statistical analysis and interpretations.
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• Data processing, which includes editing, coding, classification and
tabulation, is an intermediate stage between the collection of data and
their analysis and interpretation.
1. Editing: Is a process of examining the collected raw data to detect
errors and omission (extreme values) and to correct those when possible.
It involves a careful scrutiny of completed questionnaires or schedules.
It is done to assure that the data are:
• Editing For Consistency
The data are to be edited by editors for consistency.
They should see whether answers to questions supplied by informants are
consistent or not.

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 • Editing For Completeness: Checking whether all the
questions in a questionnaire are answered
• Editing For Accuracy: The accuracy and the reliability
of the findings depend upon accuracy of the data
collected, therefore, the editor has to examine whether all
questions are answered correctly or not.
• Editing For Uniformity: The problem under study can
be rationally analyzed when there is uniformity in the
answers of the questions supplied by different informants.
• Uniformity of answers mean whether all questions are
interpreted in the same sense by all informants or not.
• If the questions are interpreted in different ways by
different informants, then the data supplied were
heterogeneous.
10:44:27 AM • Such data should not be employed for analysis. 4
Editing For Computations: It is advised not to ask the investigators or the
respondents supplying information to make any computation.
 This additional work may give risk to errors.
Computations, if necessary, should always be made by editors or processors.
Editing can be either field editing or central editing
Field editing: Consist of reviewing of the reporting forms by the
investigator for completing what has been written in abbreviation and/ or in
illegible form at a time of recording the respondents’ response.
 This sort of editing should be done as soon as possible after the interview or
observation
Central editing: It will take place at the research office.
Its objective is to correct errors such as entry in the wrong place, entry
recorded in month.
For Example: Birth Year Recorded by Interviewer.
1873?
1973 more likely
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2. Coding: Refers to the process of assigning numerical or other symbols to
answers so that responses can be put into a limited number of categories or
classes.
Such classes should be appropriate to the research problem under
consideration.
There must be a class of every data items.
They must be mutually exclusive (a specific answer can be placed in one and only
one cell in a given category set)
Coding is necessary for efficient analysis and through it several replies may be
reduced to a small number of classes, which contain the critical information required
for analysis.

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 Please rate each of the following with regard to this flight, if applicable.
Excellent Good Fair Poor
1 2 3 4
Courtesy and Treatment from the:
Skycap at airport . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Airport Ticket Counter Agent . . . . .
Boarding Point (Gate) Agent . . . . .
Flight Attendants . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Your Meal or Snack. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Beverage Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Seat Comfort. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Carry-On Stowage Space. . . . . . . .
Cabin Cleanliness . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Video/Stereo Entertainment . . . . . .
On-Time Departure . . . . . . . . . . . .
10:44:27 AM 7
“I believe that people judge your success by the kind of car you drive.”

Strongly agree 1 Strongly agree +1

Mildly agree 2 Mildly agree +2
Neither agree Neither agree
nor disagree 3 nor disagree 0
Mildly disagree 4 Mildly disagree - 1
Strongly disagree 5 Strongly disagree - 2
Rules for Coding:
•Categories should be exhaustive
•Categories should be mutually exclusive and independent
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Code Book:
• Identifies each variable
• Provides a variable’s description
• Identifies each code name and position on storage medium.
3. Classification:
• Most research studies result in a large volume of raw data, which
must be reduced into homogeneous group.
• Which means to classify the raw data or arranging data in-groups
or classes on the basis of common characteristics.
• Data Classification implies the processes of arranging data in
groups or classes on the basis of common characteristics.
• Data having common characteristics placed in one class and in this
way the entire data get divided into a number of groups or classes.

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• Classification helps in making comparisons and drawing meaningful
conclusions.
• Classification can either be according to attributes or according to
class interval/numerical characteristics.
Classification according to attributes:
• Data are classified on the basis of common characteristics, which can
either be descriptive (such as literacy, sex, honesty, etc) or numerical
(such as weight, age height, income, expenditure, etc.).
• Descriptive characteristics refer to qualitative phenomenon, which
cannot be measured quantitatively:
• only their presence or absence in an individual item can be noticed.
• Data obtained this way on the basis of certain attributes are known as
statistics of attributes and their classification is said to be classification
according to attributes.
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 Classification according to class interval:
When individual observations possess numerical characteristics, such as
height, weight, marks, income, etc, they are classified on the basis of
class intervals .
For example, persons whose monthly income is between Rs. 1001 and
Rs. 1500 may form one group, those whose income is within Rs. 1501
and Rs. 2000 may form another group, and so on.
In this manner, the entire data may be divided into a number of groups
or classes, which are usually called class-intervals.
The number of items in each class is called the frequency of the class.
Every class has two limits: an upper limit and a lower limit, which are
known as class limits.
The difference between these two limits is called the magnitude of the
class or the class interval.
10:44:27 AM Class interval = Upper limit - Lower limit. 11
4. Tabulation
• Tabulation involves the orderly and systematic presentation of numerical data in
a form designed to elucidate the problem under consideration.
Objectives of Tabulation:
• Tabulation is a process which helps in understanding complex numerical facts.
• The purpose of table is to summarize a mass of numerical information and to
present it in the simplest possible form consistent with the purpose for which it
is to be used. Tabulation has the following objectives:
• To clarify the objectives of investigation
• The function of tabulation in the general scheme of statistical investigation is
to arrange in easily accessible form the answer with which the investigation is
concerned.
• The presentation of data in table makes the problem under study simple.

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 • To clarify the characteristics of data
A table presents facts clearly and concisely, eliminating the
need for wordy explanation. It brings out the chief
characteristics of data.
• To present facts in the minimum of space
A table presents facts in minimum of space and
communicates information in a far better way than textual
material.
• To facilitate statistical process
It simplifies reference to data and facilitates comparative
analysis and interpretation of the facts.
Rules for Tabulations
Rules relating to table structure.
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 1. Number
Each table should be numbered so that it may be easily
identified. The number of the table should be given at the
top, above the title of the table so that it may easily be
noticed.
2. Title
A table should have a complete title as it helps in finding the
information wanted. A title should tell in concise language.
What is the nature of data?
Where the data are?
What time period do the data cover?
How are the data classified?
The titles of the table should be short because long titles are
not easy to read.
The wording of the title should be carefully planned so that
it may give only one interpretation.
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3. Stub
• The designations of the horizontal rows or the data in the table are called stub or stab
items.
• The complete column of this designation is known as stab.
• The stab items should be completed and clear.
• It is always advisable to condense the stab items so that they may be written in one
line.
4. Caption
• The heading of the column is called caption.
• Caption should be carefully worded and written in the center at the top of the column.
• If the different columns are expressed in different units the definition of the units
should be included in the caption.

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 5. Body
• The body of the table contains figures that the table is
designed to present to readers.
6. Source
• The source of the data, embodied in the table should be
written so that whosoever uses the data may trace the data
to the source without any difficulty.
• The source note should give information about the place
from which data were obtained. It is written at the bottom
of the table.

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10:44:27 AM 17
 8.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF DATA ANALYSIS

Analysis of data refers to seeing the data in the light of

hypothesis of research questions and the prevailing theories
and drawing conclusion that are as amenable to theory
formation as possible.
• Analysis of the data is a task that calls for the researcher's own
judgment and skill.
• Proper analysis requires a familiarity with the background of
the survey and with all its stages.
• The steps envisaged in the analysis of data vary depending on
the types of study.
• The more specific the hypothesis, the more specific the action.
• The task of analysis is reduced just to getting the appropriate
combinations of data and reading them off against the
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instructions for verification and falsification of hypothesis.
 • By analysis we mean the computation of certain indices or
measures along with searching for patterns or relationship
that exist among the data groups.
• Analysis particularly in case of survey or experimental data
involves estimating the values of unknown parameters of the
population and testing of hypothesis for drawing inferences.
• Following are the main characteristics of Analysis of data:­
Analysis of data is one of the most important aspects of
research and it is highly skilled and technical job, it would be
carried out by the researcher himself or under his close
supervision.
The researcher should also possess judgment skill, ability of
generalization and should be familiar with the background
10:44:27 AM objects and hypothesis of study. 19
Data, fact and figures are silent and they never speak for themselves but
they have complexities.
It is only by organizing, analyzing and interpreting the research data that
we can know their important features, inter-relationship and cause effect
relationship.
The trends and sequences inherent in the phenomena elaborated by
means of generalization.
The data to be analyzed and interpreted should (I) be reproducible (II) be
readily disposed to quantitative treatment, and (III) have significance for
some systematic theory, and can serve as a basis for broader
generalization.
If the data are collected according to vague clues rather than according
to the specific hypothesis, in such cases the data are analyzed inductively
or invested during the process and not by means of any prescribed set by
rules.
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The task of analysis is incomplete without interpretation. ill fact, analysis of
data and interpretation of data are complementary to each other.
The end product of analysis is the setting up of certain general conclusions
while the interpretation deals with what these conclusions really mean.
Since analysis and interpretation of data are interwoven the interpretation
should more properly be conceived of as a special aspect of analysis rather
than a distinct operation.
 Interpretation is the process of establish relationship between variables,
which are expressed in the findings and why such relationship exists.
For any successful study the task of analysis and interpretation should be
designed before the data are actually collected with the exception of
formularize studies where the researcher had no idea as to what kind of
answer he wants.
Otherwise there is always a danger of being too late and the chances of
missing
10:44:27 AM important relevant data. 21
 8.3 QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
• It is concerned with generalization of data in quantitative form.
• Data analysis is further transformation of the processed data to look
for patterns and relations among data groups.
• By analysis we mean the computation of certain indices or measures
along with searching for patterns or relationship that exist among the
data groups.
• Analysis particularly in case of survey or experimental data involves
estimating the values of unknown parameters of the population and
testing of hypothesis for drawing inferences.
• The term ‘quantitative method’ refers in large part to the adoption of
the natural science experiment as the model for scientific research, its
key features being quantitative measurement of the phenomena
studied and systematic control of the theoretical variables influencing
those
10:44:27 AM phenomena. 22
Thus, the logic of such research is to:
• collect data using standardized approaches on a range of variables;
• search for patterns of causal relationships between these variables; and
• test given theory by confirming or denying precise hypotheses.
Data Analysis can be categorized as
• Descriptive Analysis
• Inferential Analysis

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1. Descriptive analysis:
• Descriptive analysis is largely the study of distribution of one variable. Analysis begins for
most projects with some form of descriptive analysis to reduce the data into a summary
format.
• Descriptive analysis refers to the transformation of raw data into a form that will make
them easy to understand and interpret.
• Descriptive response or observation is typically the first form of analysis.
• The calculation of averages, frequency distribution, and percentage distribution is the most
common form of summarizing data.
• The most common forms of describing the processed data are:
• Tabulation
• Percentage
• Measurements of central tendency
• Measurements of dispersion
• Measurement of asymmetry
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• Data transformation and index number
Tabulation:
• Refers to the orderly arrangement of data in a table or other summary
format.
• It presents responses or the observations on a question-by-question or
item-by-item basis and provides the most basic form of information.
• It tells the researcher how frequently each response occurs
• This starting pint of analysis requires the counting of responses or
observations for each of the categories.
E.g., Frequency tables,

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Percentage: Whether the data are tabulated by computer or by hand, it
is useful to have percentages and cumulative percentage.
Table containing percentage and frequency distribution is easier to
interpret. Percentages are useful for comparing the trend over time or
among categories.
Measure of central tendency:
• Describing the central tendency of the distribution with the mean,
median or mode is another basic form of descriptive analysis.
• These measures are most useful when the purpose is to identify typical
values of a variable or the most common characteristics of a group.
• Measure of central tendency is also known as statistical average.
• Mean, median and mode are most popular averages.

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• Mean (arithmetic mean) is the common measure of central tendency
• Mode is not commonly used but in such study like estimating the
popular size of shoes it can be used
• Median is commonly used in estimating the average of qualitative
phenomenon like estimating intelligence.
Measurement of dispersion: Is a measurement how the value of an item
scattered around the true value of the average.
Average value fails to give any idea about the dispersion of the values of
an item or a variable around the true value of the average.

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• After identifying the typical value of a variable the researcher can measure
how the value of an item is scattered around the true value of the mean.
• It is a measurement of how far is the value of the variable from the average
value.
• It measures the variation of the value of an item.
• Important measures of dispersion are:
• Range: Measures the difference between the maximum and the minimum
value of the observed variable
• Mean deviation: It is the average dispersion of an observation around the
mean value. (Xi – X)/n
• Variance: It is mean square deviation. It measures the sample variability.

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Measurement of asymmetry (skew-ness)::
When the distribution of items is happen to be perfectly symmetrical, we
then have a normal curve and the relating distribution is normal
distribution. Such curve is perfectly bell shaped curve in which case the
value of Mean = Median = Mode
Under this condition the skew-ness is altogether absent.
If the curve is distorted (whether on the right or the left side), we have
asymmetric distribution this indicates that there is a skew-ness.

Z=M=X

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 • If the curve is skewed on the right side we call it positive skew-ness
Positively skewed data

X MZ
X is mean, M and Z is mode In such case Z  M  X
But when the curve is skewed toward left, we call it negative skew-ness.
Negatively skewed data

10:44:27 AM X M Z And X M Z 30
• Skew-ness is, thus a measurement of asymmetry and shows the manner in
which the items are clustered around the average.
• In a symmetric (normal distribution) the items show a perfect balance on either
side of the mode, but in a skewed distribution the balance is skewed one side or
distorted.
• The amount by which the balance exceeds on one side measures the skew-ness.
• Knowledge about the shape of the distribution is crucial to the use of statistical
measure in research analysis.
• Since most method make specific assumption about the nature of distribution.
Data transformation:
• It is the process of changing original form of data to a form that is more
suitable to perform a data analysis that will achieve the research objective.
• The researcher often modifies the value of scalar data or even create new
variable.
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Index numbers:
• Most of the time, financial information (price, value of output, interest rate,
and exchange rate) will be adjusted for possible price changes by using
index numbers (like Customer price index, CPI, Producer Price Index, (PPI).
• An index number is a number, which is used to measure the level of a given
phenomenon at some standard date.
• Index numbers measures only the relative changes.
• Different indices serve different purpose
• Commodity index serves as a measure of changes in the phenomenon on
that commodity only
• Some index numbers are used to measure cost of living (CPI)
• In economic sphere they are often termed as economic barometer.

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• Scores of observation are recalibrated so that they may be related to certain
base period or base number.
• Most commonly used index number to reduce the influence of price change
on our observation is CPI
• Researcher also uses index numbers to make comparison between
observations.
• When series (data) are expressed in same units, we can use, averages for the
purpose of comparison.
• But two or more series are expressed in different units; statistical average
cannot be used to compare them.
• By converting numbers in to index number we can make comparison
between two or more series.

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2. Inferential Analysis
 Most researcher wishes to go beyond the simple tabulation of frequency distribution and calculation
of averages and / or dispersion.
 They frequently conduct and seek to determine the relationship between variables and test statistical
significance.
 When the population is consisting of more than one variable it is possible to measure the relationship
between them.
 If we have data on two variables we said to have a bivariate variable, if the data is more than two
variables then the population is known as multivariate population.
 If for every measure of a variable, X, we have corresponding value of variable, Y, the resulting pairs
of value are called a bivariate population
 In case of bivariate or multivariate population, we often wish to know the relationship between the
two or more variables from the data obtained.
Inferential analysis is concerned with the various tests of significance for testing hypotheses in order
to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate some conclusion or conclusions.
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E.g., we may like to know, “Whether the number of hours students devote for study is
somehow related to their family income, to age, to sex, or to similar other factors.
There are several methods of determining the relationship between variables.
Two questions should be answered to determine the relationship between variables.
1. Does there exist association or correlation between the two or more variables?
If yes, then up to what degree?
This will be answered by the use of correlation technique. Correlation technique can be
different.
In case of bivariate population correlation can be found using:
• Cross tabulation
• Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation:

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It is simple correlation and commonly used
• Charles Spearman’s coefficient of correlation
In case of multivariate population correlation can be studied through:
• Coefficient of multiple correlation
• Coefficient of partial correlation
2. Is there any cause and effect (causal relationship) between two variables or
between one variable on one side and two or more variables on the other side?

This question can be answered by the use of regression analysis.

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• In regression analysis the researcher tries to estimate or predict the average value of
one variable on the basis of the value of other variable.
• For instance a researcher estimates the average value score on statistics knowing a
student’s score on a mathematics examination.
• There are different techniques of regression.
• In case of bivariate population, cause and effect relationship can be studied through
simple regression.
• In case of multivariate population: Causal relationship can be studied through
multiple regression analysis.
Time series Analysis; Successive observations of the given phenomenon over a
period of time are analyzed through time series analysis.
It measures the relationship between variables and time (trend).

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Time series will measure seasonal (seasonal fluctuation), cyclical
irregular fluctuation, and Trend.
The analysis of time series is done to understand the dynamic condition
of achieving the short term and long-term goal of business firm for
forecasting purpose
The past trend can be used to evaluate the success or failure of
management or any other policy.
Based on past trend the future patterns can be predicted and policy may
accordingly be formulated.

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 8.4 QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
• When we conduct research, need to explain changes in metrics or understand people's opinions, we
always turn to qualitative data.
Qualitative data is typically generated through:
• Interview transcripts
• Surveys with open-ended questions
• Contact center transcripts
• Texts and documents
• Audio and video recordings
• Observational notes
• Compared to quantitative data, which captures structured information, qualitative data is
unstructured and has more depth. It can answer our questions, can help formulate hypotheses and
build understanding.

But unfortunately, analyzing qualitative data is difficult. While tools like Excel, Tableau and PowerBI
crunch and visualize quantitative data with ease, there are no such mainstream tools for qualitative
data. The majority of qualitative data analysis still happens manually.
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Methods of analysis:
I. Content Analysis
This is a popular approach to the analysis of qualitative information.
Key phrases or words are counted and the frequencies analyzed.
The selection of these depends on, for example, the particular hypothesis to be
tested.
This method may be useful in allowing the researcher to present a picture of
what the concepts are but it does not help in understanding why ideas or
interpretations arose in the first place.
In qualitative research, it is likely that you will engage in some form of content
analysis as it is frequently used to analyze text, pictorial information,
interviews and web pages.
As the name suggests, the purpose of content analysis is to describe the
content of your respondents’ comments systematically and classify the
various
10:44:27 AM
meanings expressed in the material you have recorded. 40
There are six main steps in content analysis.
1. Identify the Unit of Analysis
Often the unit of analysis is either an individual or a company, but it may be
more generic like geographic region or country.
2. Choose a Set of Categories
• The categories must be relevant to the issue being explored, mutually
exclusive (so that a unit can only be placed under one category), exhaustive
(covering all possibilities) and reliable (someone else repeating the analysis
would categories the unit in the same way).
• The categories are chosen based on either a theory or rationale or on the
usefulness of the review of the material.

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3. Coding: Read through the material and, within each context unit, assign each
assertion/numerical value to one of the categories.
There may be more than one assertion within a context unit.
4. Tabulate the Material:
Count the number of assertions under each category and present the material as a
table.

5. Illustrate the Material:

Present the categories and list all the assertions under them or a representative set.
Illustration is very important and the construction of schematic diagrams to
indicate the relationships between elements and the direction of influence is very
important to aid the researchers understanding and to facilitate the dissemination
of ideas to others.
Some examples are given in the next sub-section.

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6. Draw Conclusions from the Tabulations and Diagram: Produce inferences
as to the nature of effects between elements in the data. From views on how
one element may influence another and understand the complexity of the
problem.
II. Conversation analysis:
Conversation analysis (CA) was pioneered by Harvey Sacks and has its roots
in the field of ethnomethodology. It treats conversation as a series of
utterances which are intended to perform a particular function, beyond that of
simply reporting an observation.
The conversation analyst seeks to understand how the participants in a
conversation use and interpret elements of conversation known as ‘speech
acts’. Speech acts are seen to have a performative function, whereby tacit
meaning is implied.

10:44:27 AM 43
• This meaning can often be dependent on the interpretation of other speech
acts, so context becomes of primary concern to the analyst.
• For example, saying ‘I’d like to take a different route today’ could
perform an action of informing or asking, depending on the relationship
between the participants of the conversation, and the context in which this
utterance occurred.
• Analysis generally takes the form of using tape-recordings as the source of
data.
• Conversations are described in terms of performative actions, which
enables the complex structure of conversation to be unwoven.

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III. Discourse analysis
• Discourse analysis (DA) shares many similarities to CA in the sense that
it is concerned with unravelling the complexities of the structure and
organization of language.
• However, it has wider application since it is concerned not only with
spoken interchanges, but also with textual documents which follow a
discursive pattern, such as letters, diaries, and articles.
• DA has developed associations with social psychology, since it seeks to
explore how language choices are governed by and dictate
psychological responses.
• As such, DA is particularly useful for understanding how norms such as
power imbalances are perpetuated.

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IV. Semiotic analysis
• Semiotic analysis was originally developed by the Swiss linguist Ferdinand
de Saussure and is often referred to as the ‘science of signs’ (De Saussure
1983).
• In its early form the approach was geared towards the study of written text,
but has since been expanded, particularly through the work of Barthes
(1967), so it is now often used in analyzing a wide range of material,
including visual data such as photographs and magazine advertisements.
• The main premise of the approach is that a sign consists of two elements: the
signifier, which might relate to a word or particular image, and the signified,
which relates to how the signifier is interpreted, or the meaning that is
derived by the observer of the signifier.
• The signified consists of a surface (denotative) meaning, and a deeper
(connotative) meaning.
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• An important aspect of semiotic understanding is that signs only make
sense when considered in relation to other signs within the same ‘code’.
• When analyzing written text, the code within which signs operate is
language.
• However, the range of codes to which the approach can be applied are many
and varied.
V . Grounded Theory
• This theory recognizes the fact that large amounts of non-standard data
produced by qualitative studies makes data analysis problematic.
• Unlike in quantitative analysis where an external structure is imposed on
the data, some qualitative researchers require that structure is derived from
the data itself and requires the data to be systematically analyzed to bring
out themes or patterns.
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• In seeking to apply grounded theory to data transcripts, it is usually best to start with a
thorough familiarization with the data and the framing of questions leading to
reflection which involves trying to make sense of the data.
• A critical appraisal of the data is necessary at this stage, including an awareness of
previous research.
• Conceptualization comes next whereby a set of concepts or variables appear important in
understanding what is going on.
• Concepts are now articulated as explanatory variables but the researcher should still be
sceptical over their validity and reliability.

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• The next stage is linking, where all of the variables considered important can
be linked together towards a more holistic theory.
• This process involves consideration of literature and existing models and
relating this to the results.
• Finally, a re-evaluation should take place in the light of peer scrutiny,
perhaps more work is required or a different emphasis should be placed on
some aspects of interpretation.
• Although grounded theory has allowed many great insights to be made in
business and management, because of the need for high skill levels, training
and large amounts of time, we do not recommend grounded theory as an
approach to follow at masters levels.

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 8.6 HYPOTHESIS TESTING CONCEPTS AND PROCEDURES
• Inferences on population characteristics (or parameters) are often made on the
basis of sample observations, especially when the population is large and it
may not be possible to enumerate all the sampling units belonging to the
population.
• In doing so, one has to take the help of certain assumptions (or hypothetical
values) about the characteristics of the population if some such information is
available.
• Such hypothesis about the population is termed as statistical hypothesis and
the hypothesis is tested on the basis of sample values.
• The procedure enables one to decide on a certain hypothesis and test its
significance.
“A claim or hypothesis about the population parameters is known as Null
Hypothesis
10:44:27 AM
and is written as, H0.” 50
• This hypothesis is then tested with available evidence and a decision is
made whether to accept this hypothesis or reject it.
• If this hypothesis is rejected, then we accept the alternate hypothesis.
This hypothesis is written as H1.
• For testing hypothesis or test of significance we use both parametric
tests and nonparametric or distribution free tests.
• Parametric tests assume within properties of the population, from which
we draw samples.
• Such assumptions may be about population parameters, sample size, etc.
• In case of non-parametric tests, we do not make such assumptions. Here
we assume only nominal or ordinal data.

10:44:27 AM 51
• Important parametric tests used for testing of hypothesis are:
(i) z-test
(ii) t-test
(iii) X2 test; and
(iv) f-test
• When X2 test is used as a test of goodness of fit and also as a test of
independence, we use non-parametric tests.
• As has been stated earlier all parametric tests used for testing of
hypothesis are based on the assumption of normally, i.e., population is
considered to be normally distributed.

10:44:27 AM 52
Procedure for testing of hypothesis:
1. State the null hypothesis as well as the alternate hypothesis
For example, let us assume the population mean = 50 and set up the
hypothesis µ = 50. this is called the null hypothesis and is denoted as;
Null hypothesis, H0: µ = 50
Alternative hypothesis H1: µ ¹ 50
Or µ > 50
µ < 50
2. Establish a level of significance (prior to sampling)
• The level of significance signifies the probability of committing Type 1
error a and is generally taken as equal to 0.05.
• Sometimes, the value a is established as 0.01, but it is at the discretion of
the investigator to select its value, depending upon the sensitivity of the
study.
10:44:27 AM 53
To illustrate 5% level of significance indicates that a researcher is willing to take 5%
risk of rejecting the Null Hypothesis when it happens to be true.

3. Choosing a suitable test statistic

• Now the researcher would choose amongst the various tests (i.e. z, t, c2 and f-tests).
• Actually, for the purpose of rejecting or accepting the null hypothesis, a suitable
statistics called ‘test statistics’ is chosen.
• This means that H0 is assumed to be really true.
• Obviously due to sampling fluctuations, the observed value of the statistic based on
random sample will differ from the expected value.
• If the difference is large enough, one suspects the validity of the assumption and
rejects the null hypothesis (H0).

10:44:27 AM 54
On the other hand, if the difference may be assumed due to sampling
(random) fluctuation, the null hypothesis (H 0) is accepted.
4. Defining the critical rejection regions and making calculations for
test statistics
• If we select the value of a = Level of significance = 0.05, and use
the standard normal distribution (z-test) as our test statistic for
testing the population parameter u, then the value of the difference
between the assumption of null hypothesis (assumed value of the
population parameter) and the value obtained by the analysis of the
sample results is not expected to be more than 1.96 s at a = 0.05.
• This relationship can be shown by the diagram given below;

10:44:27 AM 55
 Region of Rejection

a=.02 a=.02
5 5
LOWER UPPER
LIMIT LIMIT
10:44:27 AM 56
 Z = Observed value of the statistic (x) – Expected Value (u)
Standard error of the estimate

Calculated value of z as given by the formula above,

S X= [Absolute value]
Now find out the critical (or tabulated) value of the statistic (z or t or f, etc.).
(Refer Tables)

In case of small sample and in cases when sample variance is taken as

population variance (population variance, being not known) we use t-test based
on t-distribution to judge the significance of sample mean or significance of
difference between two sample means.
i.e. If the same size is less than or equal to 30 we use t-test, if same size is more
than 30 we use z-test.

10:44:27 AM 57
 Exercise 1

1. Telecom service provider claims that individual LoS (α) = 5% (Take 5% if not given in question)
customers pay on an average 400 rs. per month with n = 50 (Sample size)
standard deviation of 25 rs. A random sample of 50
xbar x̄ = 250 (Sample mean)
customers bills during a given month is taken with a
mean of 250 and standard deviation of 15. What to s = 15 (sample Standard deviation)
say with respect to the claim made by the service n > = 30 hence will go with z-test
provider?
Step 1:
Solution:
Calculate z using z-test formula as below:
First thing first, Note down what is given in the
question: z = (x̄ - μ)/ (σ/√n)
H0 (Null Hypothesis) : μ = 400 z = (250 - 400) / (25/√50)
• H1 (Alternate Hypothesis): μ ≠ 400 (Not equal z = -42.42
means either μ > 400 or μ < 400
• Hence it will be validated with two tailed test )
σ = 25 (Population Standard Deviation)

10:44:28 AM 58
Step 2:
• get z critical value from z table for α = 5%
• z critical values = (-1.96, +1.96)
• to accept the claim (significantly),
calculated z should be in between -1.96 < z
< +1.96
• But calculated z (-42.42) < -1.96 which
mean reject the null hypothesis

10:44:28 AM 59
Two-tailed and One-tailed tests:
• In the context of hypothesis testing, these two terms are quite important and must be
clearly understood.
• A two-tailed test rejects the null hypothesis if, say, the sample mean is significantly
higher or lower than the hypothesized value of the mean of the population.
• Such a test is appropriate when the null hypothesis is some specified value and the
alternative hypothesis is a value not equal to the specified value of the null
hypothesis.
• Symbolically, the two tailed test is appropriateH0: m = m H0 and Ha : m ¹ mHo
which may mean m > mH0 or m < mH0. Thus, in a two-tailed test, there are two
rejection regions, one on each tail of the curve. Mathematically we can state:
Acceptance Region A : Z ≤ 1.96
Rejection Region R : Z ≥ 1.96

10:44:28 AM 60
 Two Tailed Test
Acceptance and rejection regions
in case of a two-tailed test (with 5% significance level)

Acceptance region
Accept H0 if the
sample mean ( x) falls in this region
Reject H0 if
Reject H0 if
the sample
the sample
mean ( x)
mean ( x) falls
falls in this
in this region
region

Rejection Rejection
Region Region

a=.02
a=.025
5
LOWER z= -1.96 UPPER z = 1.96
LIMIT
Acceptance Region
10:44:28 AM
LIMIT 61
A one-tailed test would be used when we are to test, say, whether the
population mean is either lower than or higher than some hypothesised
value.
For instance, if our H0 : m = mHo and Ha : m < mH0
then we are interested in what is known as left-tailed test (wherein there is
one rejection region only on the left tail) which can be illustrated as below:
Mathematically we can state:
Acceptance Region A: Z > -1.645
Rejection Region R : Z ≤ -1.645

10:44:28 AM 62
 One Tailed Test
Acceptance and rejection regions
in case of a One-tailed test (Left tailed test)
(with 5% significance level)

Acceptance region
Accept H0 if the
sample mean ( x) falls in this region
Reject H0 if
the sample
mean ( x)
falls in this
region

Rejection
Region
a=.0.05

LOWER z= -1.645 Acceptance Region

10:44:28 AM
LIMIT 63
In case our H0 m = mH0 and Ha : m > m H , we are then interested in what is
0

known as one tailed test (right tail) and the rejection region will be on the
right tail of the curve as shown below:
Mathematically we can state:
Acceptance Region A : Z ≤ 1.645
Rejection Region R: Z > 1.645

10:44:28 AM 64
 One Tailed Test
Acceptance and rejection regions
in case of a One-tailed test (Right tailed test)
(with 5% significance level)

Acceptance region
Accept H0 if the
sample mean ( x) falls in this region
Reject H0 if
the sample
mean ( x) falls
in this region

Rejection
Region

a=0.05

UPPER z = 1.645
Acceptance Region LIMIT
10:44:28 AM 65
Chi-Square Test :
A chi-square (x2) test can be used when the data satisfies four conditions.
i. There must be two observed sets of data or one observed set of data and
one expected set of data (generally, there are n-rows and c ‑columns of
data)
ii. The two sets of data must be based on the same sample size.
iii. Each cell in the data contains the observed or expected count of
five or large?
iv.The different cells in a row of column must have categorical variables
(male, female or younger than 25 years of age, 25 year of age, older than
40 years of age etc.)

10:44:28 AM 66
Application areas of chi-square test
The x2 distribution typically looks like a normal distribution, which is
skewed to the right with a long tail to the right.
It is a continuous distribution with only positive values. It has following
applications:
• To test whether the sample differences among various sample
proportions are significant or can they be attributed to chance.
• To test the independence of two variables in a contingency table.
• To use it as a test of goodness of fit.
x2 test has the following steps:

10:44:28 AM 67
i. State the null hypothesis and calculate the numbers in each category.
ii. Determine the level of significance (i.e., how much risk of type I error)
the researcher is prepared to take.
iii. Calculate x2, as follows:

x2 =  (oi – Ej)2
Ej
where,Oi = Observed frequency.
Ej = Expected frequency in the category
iv. Find the critical value of x2 against the number of degrees of freedom for
the specified level of significance.
v. Compare the calculated value of x2 with the tabulated (critical) value and
determine the region of rejection.
10:44:28 AM 68
Measures of Association:
• Research questions in business frequently revolve around the study of relationship
between two or more variables. Various objectives may be served by such an analysis.
• The strength, direction, shape and other features of the relationship may be discovered.
• Or tactical and strategic questions may be answered by predicting the values of one
variable from those of another.
• With correlation, one estimates the degree and nature of the relationship between
variables calculated.
• With regression, an equation is developed to predict the values of the dependent
variable.
• Both are affected by the assumptions of measurement level and the distributions that
underline the data.

10:44:28 AM 69
Bivariate correlation analysis:
• Bivariate correlation analysis differs from non-parametric measures of association and
regression analysis in two important ways.
• First, parametric correlation requires two continuous variables measured on an interval or
ratio scale.
• Second, the coefficient does not distinguish between independent and dependent variables.
• It treats the variables symmetrically since the coefficient r xz has the same interpretation as
ryx.
Linear regression equation
• The pattern of the scatter diagram, in most cases, is linearly related.
• The line which runs through most of the points, (if not all), is known as the ‘line of
regression’.
• This line should be the most representative of the data, i.e., most suitable and is thus
popularly known as the ‘line of best fit’.
10:44:28 AM 70
 The best line would be the one which passes through all the points.
But this is not possible in most situations.
 The next step is to find the line which is closest to all the points, i.e., the distance
between the line and points is minimum.
As some points shall be above the line and some below the line, therefore, we take the
square of deviations and hence the line of best fit would be one which gives the
minimum differences:
Y = a + bx
Where Y = Dependent variables
X = Independent variables
a and b are constants which determine the completed line.

10:44:28 AM 71
10:44:28 AM 72
 Standard error of the estimate
 How good is this fit? The closer these values are to each
other, the better the fit.
Accordingly, a measure of the variability of the scatter
around the regression line would determine the reliability of
this estimate.
The smaller this estimate, the more dependable the
prediction will be.
The coefficient of determination (r2)
The square of the coefficient of correlation is called the
coefficient of determination (r2).
It is a more precise measure of the straight relationship
between the two variables and lends itself to more precise
interpretation because it can be represented as a proportion or
10:44:28as
AM a percentage. 73
 The coefficient of determination can be defined as a proportion of the
variation in the dependent variable y, that is explained by the variation in
independent variable x, in the regression model.
r2 = Explained variation
Total variation
Rank correlation
 For the two variables x and y whose distribution is unknown, the
degree of association between x and y is ascertained by the Spearman’s
Rank Correlation.
 As the name suggests, this method is based on the rank (or order) of the
observations rather than on a specific distribution of x and y.
In marketing research, the ranking or ordering of alternative preferences
is quite common
10:44:28 AM 74
 The method is very handy and involves simple calculations only.
 The rank correlation coefficient is a measure of correlation that exists
between two sets of ranks. In other words, it is a measure of association
that is based on the ranks of the observations and not on the numerical
values of the data.
It was developed by the famous statistician, Charles Spearman, in the
early 1900s and as such, it is also known as Spearman’s Rank
Correlation Coefficient.
For calculating Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient, first of all the
actual observation has to be replaced by their ranks, giving rank 1 to the
highest value, rank 2 to the next highest value and following this very
order, ranks are assigned for all values.

10:44:28 AM 75
 The second step is to record the difference between ranks (or ‘d’) for
each pair of observations. Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient, r s, is
worked out as under:
Rs = 1-6d2
n(n2-1)
Where n = number of paired observation.
The value of Spearman’s rank correlation will always vary between + 1
indicating a perfect positive correlation and –1, indicating perfect
negative correlation between two variables.
This is a measure of correlation that exists between two sets of ranks, a
measure of degree of association between variables that we would not
have been able to calculate otherwise.

10:44:28 AM 76
• This is a measure of correlation that exists between two sets of ranks, a
measure of degree of association between variables that we would not
have been able to calculate otherwise.
• This method helps to simplify the process of computing correlation
coefficient from a very large set of data for each of the two variables. We
can compute measure of association that is based on ranks of
observations, not the numerical values of the data.
• These values are rather quick and easy to use and can be applied to
ordinal or nominal scale data.
• They do not presuppose any particular distribution and consequential
assumptions.
• There are many situations in which the various assumptions required
for standard tests of significance cannot be met. We can use this method
under such situations as it is easier to explain and understand.
10:44:28 AM 77
10:44:28 AM 78
10:44:28 AM 79
 CHAPTER-9
RESEARCH REPORT WRITING
The last step in the research process is writing the research report.
Each step of the process is important for a valid study, as negligence
at any stage will affect the quality of not just that part but the whole
study.
Therefore, the whole enterprise can be spoiled if the report is not
well written.
As Burns writes, ‘extremely valuable and interesting practical work
may be spoiled at the last minute by a student who is not able to
communicate the results easily’ (1997: 229).

10:44:28 AM 81
 • Research report is the oral or written presentation of
evidence and the findings in such a way that it is readily
understood and assessed by the reader and enables him to
verify the validity of the conclusions.
• Research report writing is the culmination of the
research investigation.
• It is at the stage of reporting that the researcher assembles
the findings of the study, draws conclusions and evaluates
his own findings.
• Report writing is the end product of research activity. It is
highly skilled work; it is an interesting, fascinating,
challenging, gruelling and sometimes even exasperating
experience.
• Writing a research report is a technical activity that
10:44:28 AM demands all the skills and patience of the researcher. 82
  It requires considerable thought, effort, patience and
penetration and an overall approach to the problem, data and
analysis.
Also needed is firm control over language and great
objectivity.
A vast amount of planning and preparation is necessary for
organising and writing the report.
Perfection in a research report is achieved by continuous and
persistent thought and creative and intelligent writing.
Only hard and patient work on the facts, careful and critical
assessment and intelligent planning in organising the report
can facilitate communication.
There are no standard criteria for the organisation of a
report, popular or technical.
They depend on each investigation, problem, the novelty or
familiarity of the methods, nature and volume of facts,
10:44:28 AM 83
techniques of analysis and so on.
  No research project is complete without a report. The
nature of the report is determined by the project itself and
to whom it is addressed.
Academic research is expected to produce lengthy
reports, or theses, covering all aspects of the research and
reporting on them in a precise and rather formal manner.
But no matter what the size or formality of the report, it is
reasonable to expect it to convey information on a fairly
standard set of topics.
First, it must say why the work was done, what events led
up to it and what other work was found to be relevant.
This is usually contained in the introduction, which
should also include the precise statement of the objective
and aims of the project.

10:44:29 AM 84
 • Generally, there should be a section describing what work was
done.
• This should cover the methods used, their selection and any
problems experienced in their application.
• From this it is easy to move on to what was found out, or the
results.
• In turn, these lead on to the conclusions, which are a statement
of what the researcher deduced from the results, and then on to
the recommendations, which set out what the researcher feels
should be the action taken as a result of the conclusions.
• Writing is not an activity that can be allocated an odd half-hour
whenever it is convenient.
• It requires sustained concentration. The amount of time needed
to make real progress in your writing depends on the way you
prefer to work.
• Most people find that it takes a day to write about 2,000 words.
10:44:29 AM
But we all work in different ways. 85
  Some people, once they get started, prefer to continue
until they drop from exhaustion! Others like to set a strict
timetable, devoting three or four hours a day to writing.
Whichever category you fall into, make sure you have
time for writing allocated in your diary.
We have found that it is helpful to have blocks of time
where writing can take place on successive days.
This ensures a degree of continuity of ideas, which isn’t
easy to maintain if you keep having to ‘think your way
back’ into your research.
All the analytical information and consequential
inferences may well be communicated, preferably
through research report, to the consumers of research
results who may be either an individuals or groups or
10:44:29 AM some public or private organization. 86
 Report Format

The following outline may be adopted while preparing the

research report:
Outlines of the Research Project
Title Page
Approval Sheet
Declaration
Certificate from advisor (s)
Acknowledgements
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Figures
Acronyms
Abstract : (Should be as brief as possible being not more than half a page
and with a single space, italicized and written in a funnel form from general to
10:44:29 AM
specific and involves key words.) 87
 CHAPTER ONE (Centered)
INTRODUCTION
Background of the study
Statement of the Problem
Research Hypothesis/ Research Questions
Objective of the Study
Significance of the Study
Scope and Limitation of the Study
Organization of the Paper
CHAPTER TWO (Centered)
2. LITERATURE REVIEW : Conceptual and
Empirical
10:44:29 AM 88
 CHAPTER THREE (Centered)
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Description of the Study Area/Organization
3.2 Research Design
3.3 Types and Sources of data
3.4 Study Population
3.5 Sampling Design
3.6 Data Collection Instruments
3.7 Method of Data Analysis
3.8 Validity test
3.9 Reliability test – using Cronbach alph
10:44:29 AM 3.10 Ethical issues 89
 CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

CHAPTER FIVE
5. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS
AND RECOMMENDATIONS
References
Appendices (like Questionnaire)

10:44:29 AM 90
 Cover Page
Place the Title of Your Research Here,

A Research Project Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the

Master of Business Administration degree in ……………..

By:
Your Name & Id.No

Advisor: -------------------------------

YARDSTICK INTERNATIONAL COLLEGE

MBA PROGRAM
Month Year
10:44:29 AM ADDIS ABABA, Ethiopia 91
 Reporting Research findings
• Once the analysis is over, the results can be depicted in a tabulated
form, with appropriate illustrations.
• A detailed presentation of the findings of the study is a major part of the
research report.
• These can be supported in the form of tables and charts together with a
validation of results.
• Since it comprises the main body of the report, it generally extends over
several chapters.
• It is advisable to project summarised results rather than raw data. All the
results should be presented in logical sequence and split into readily
identifiable sections.
• All relevant results must find a place in the report.
• All the results of the report should address the research problems stated
earlier in the report, illustrating whether the results support or reject the
hypothesis.
• But ultimately the researcher must rely on his own judgement in deciding
10:44:29 AM
the outline of his report. 92
 Interpretation of results— some hints
• To find the relationships among the variables that are
studied and observing the commonality, uniqueness,
diversity etc. among them.
• To observe the role of extraneous variables. How they
affect the various phenomena studied.
• To ensure validity; the results can be cross-checked with
others through consultation.
• To consider all the relevant factors affecting the problem
before generalising it to the whole population.
The prime tasks of interpretation is to bring to the surface
the gist of the findings. A researcher should explain why
the findings are so, in objective terms.
10:44:29 AM 93
 • He should try to bring out the principles involved in the
observations.
• He can also make reasonable prediction.
• On the basis of interpretation of an exploratory study, a new
hypothesis can be formulated for experimental research. During
interpretation, unconnected, isolated facts should not be
discarded, but should be explained properly.
• Interpretation leads to the establishment of some explanatory
concepts arising out of the connection between the underlying
processes and principles, and the observed facts from a working
model.
• A researcher’s task is to identify and disengage such principles
and processes.
• Interpretation can also provide a theoretical conception, which
can be the basis of further researcher and new knowledge.
• Thus, continuity in research can be established and the quest for
10:44:29 AM
knowing the unknown can be sustained. 94
 Prerequisites for good interpretation: some guidelines
• While drawing inferences from the analysis of data, the
researcher has to ensure that the inferences are free from
any biases and mistakes that may arise due to both
subjective and objective factors.
• This can be minimised by: checking whether (a) the data
are appropriate, trustworthy and adequate for drawing
inferences b) the data reflect good homogeneity and (c)
proper analysis has been done through statistical
methods.
• The researcher should also check for personal bias
(subjective element) while interpreting the results. There
are so many pitfalls that have to be avoided while
observing and interpreting the results.
10:44:29 AM 95
 Some of them are: stereotyping (conforming with existing
results), preoccupation with set results, projecting his own
views on the subject, snap judgements, lack of appreciation
for others’ feelings, prejudicial treatment and so on.
The researcher must remain vigilant about all such things so
that false generalisations may not take place.
He should be well-equipped with statistical measures and
must know their correct use for drawing inferences
concerning his study.
• The researcher must always keep in view that the task of
interpretation is very much intertwined with analysis and
cannot be separated.
• He should take precautions about the reliability of data,
computational checks, validation and comparison of results.
10:44:29 AM 96
 • The researcher should also pay attention to the hidden
factors underlying the results. Broad generalisations
should be avoided because the coverage may be
restricted to a particular time, area and conditions.
• Originality and creativity are critical in interpreting the
results.
• While linking the relationship between theoretical
orientation and empirical observation, the researcher has
to make use of his originality and creativity in
developing concepts and models.
• He must pay special attention to this aspect while
engaged in the task of interpretation.

10:44:29 AM 97
 Presentation of Data
• There is no universally accepted set of standards for
evaluating a presentation of data in research report.
• However, the following checklist will serve as a general
guideline for a critical evaluation or analysis of a data
in research report:
1. The appropriateness of the title
(a) Does it exactly indicate the core of the study?
(b) Is it clear and concise?
(c) Does it promise no more than what the study can
provide?

10:44:29 AM 98
 2. Importance of the problem
(a) Is the research problem topically important?
(b) Is it socially relevant in terms of its contribution to
knowledge and/or solution to the burning problem of the
day?
(c) Are the research questions (objectives) clearly stated?
(d) Are they specific and related to the selected theme?
(e) Are the hypotheses pertinent to the research questions?
(f) Are they clearly stated and testable?
(g) Are the concepts in the title, objectives and hypotheses
operationally defined?
(h) Are the operational definitions valid and reasonable?
(i) Are assumptions and limitations stated?
(j) Does the problem formulation reflect the
researcher’s mastery of the subject matter of the study?
10:44:29 AM 99
 3. Review of related literature and earlier studies
(a) Is this review covered adequately?
(b) Is it well-organised and documented?
(c) Has the research gap been identified?
(d) Does the present study fill in the gap?
4. Soundness of the methodology:
(a) Are the type of research and sources and methods of
data collection described in detail?
(b) Are the above methods appropriate to the problem
under study and the respondents?
(c) Is the research design appropriate to test adequately
the hypothesised relationships?
(d) Is the sampling design appropriate and described in
detail?
(e) Are the methods adopted for sampling scientific?
10:44:29 AM (f) Is the sample size adequate? 100
 (g) Are relevant variables recognised, defined, inter-related
and measured?
(h) Are the data-gathering instruments appropriate?
(i) Are the validity and reliability of the instruments
established?
(j) Are the details of the methodology adequate for
replicability?
5. Data analysis
(a) Is the analysis objective and deep?
(b) Is the statistical treatment appropriate?
(c) Is appropriate use made of tables and charts?
(d) Is their format proper and complete?
(e) Have the hypotheses been adequately tested?
(f) Is the analysis of data relationship logical and
perceptive?
10:44:29 AM 101
 (g) Is the significance of statistical results tested properly?
(h) Are the statistical results interpreted and presented
without any bias?
6. Contribution of the study and conclusions and
recommendations
(a) Are the findings of the study stated clearly?
(b) Are the findings generalisable?
(c) Does the study test a theory or develop a new theory, a
new model or new tool or contribute to methodology in
any other way?
(d) Are the conclusions logical and justified by the
empirical evidence?
10:44:29 AM 102
 (e) Are the implications of the results for policy and action
explicitly pointed out?
(f) Do the recommendation flow from the findings?
(g) Are the recommendation specific and practical?
7. Presentation
(a) Is the format of the report appropriate?
(b) Does the report have headings and sub-headings that
facilitate reading and understanding it?
(c) Is the chapter scheme based on the objective of the
study?
(d) Is the textual discussion clear, concise and convincing?
(e) Is the style of writing smooth and simple?
(f) Is it free from spelling and grammatical errors?
(g) Do the footnotes/references contain full details of the
sources?
(h) Is the bibliography exhaustive?
10:44:29 AM 103
 Some other Guidelines : Page Format and Layout

Margin
The margins should be set at least 1.25 inches at the top,
bottom, left and right edges of the page.
Pagination
For the preliminary pages (abstract, table of contents, list of
tables, graphs, and acronyms), use small Roman numerals
(i, ii, iii, iv, v ...).
For the text, use Arabic numbers (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ...) starting
with page one (the first page of the text itself).

10:44:29 AM 104
 Line spacing
Double-space all text throughout the manuscript except the
abstract.
Fonts
Body text Font Size: 12 pt, Times New Roman
Paragraph Heading Font Size: 14, Times New Roman,
Underlined, Left Aligned
Chapter Heading Font Size: 16, Times New Roman, Centre
Aligned.
Tables, Figures etc.,
It must be numbered according to the chapter (eg. Table 4.1)
and the title must be placed at the top. The source must be
10:44:29 AM placed at the bottom of the table. 105
 Citations
The citations should be made in a uniform style using the
American Psychological Association (APA) style with author
(s)’ names and year in parentheses put a period after the year in
the parentheses.
References
Every work cited in text must have a corresponding reference.
The references must be in ascending alphabetic order and
should conform to the American Psychological Association
(APA) style.
Appendices
The appendices are to be attached at the end of the report and to
be numbered as Appendix-A, Appendix-B etc. right justified
at the top of the page. Below the world

10:44:29 AM 106
  Appendix write in parenthesis “Refer Para No__”. The
para number is to be the number in the body of text where
the reference of appendix is given.
An appendix may have annexure (s).
If there are annexure, there are to be attached immediately
after the said appendix.
The annexure are to be numbered as Annexure-I,
Annexure-II etc.
Guidelines for mentioning the references
Based on American Psychological Association (APA)
Style Manual:
I. Rules for citing the books on the reference lists:
1. Use the author’s surrname and initial(s) only. Do not
10:44:29 AM use first names, degrees, and the like. 107
 2. Cite all authors listed for the book in the order they are
listed.
3. Follow the author’s name with the year of publication.
Year of publication will be in parentheses.
4. The title of the book is next and it is italicized. Only the
first word in the title or any proper name should be in
upper case.
5. The place of publication follows.
6. The publisher of the book is listed last followed by a
period (.).
7. Space must be after periods that separate the parts of the
citation and after the periods of the initials in personal
names.
8. In edited books, pagination should be mentioned in
10:44:29 AM parenthesis immediately after the title of the book. 108
 References: Books (Citation)
Zeithaml,V.A., Parasuraman, A. & Berry, L.L. (1990).
Delivering Quality Service: Balancing Customer
Perceptions and Expectations: p. 18. New York: The
Free Press.
Edited Book
Harrington, D.M. (1990). The Ecology of Human
Creativity: A psychological perspective. In Runco, M.A.,
& Albert, R.S., (Eds).Theories of creativity(pp. 143-
169).Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Book by a Corporate Author
Committee of Public Finance (1979). Public finance. New
York: Pitman.
10:44:29 AM 109
 II. Rules for citing the periodical articles on the reference list.
The reference section appears at the end of the paper and lists all
the research materials, which have been used.
1. Use the author’s surname and initial(s) only. Do not use first
names, degrees, and the like.
2. Cite all authors in the Reference list in the order they are listed
with the source.
3. Following the author information, give the date of publication
in parentheses.
4. For weekly and daily periodical/ magazines, cite the year,
month and day. For monthly article/ magazine, cite the year
and the month. For the professional journals, cite only the year.
5. The title of the article follows. Only the first letter of the first
word of the title or subtitle or any proper name appearing in the
title should be in upper case.
10:44:29 AM 110
 6. The title of the journal (in italic) comes next, followed
by the volume number, and if appropriate, the issue
number.
If the journal uses continuous pagination, i.e., it runs page
numbers throughout a year or volume; no reference to an
issue number is needed. In that case, the title of the
journal is italicized, as well as the volume number.
7. If the journal is re-paged issue by issue, i.e., each issue
has a page number 1, then the issue number must follow
the volume number. The issue number is in parentheses
but is not italicized.
8. The next part of the citation is the pagination. The page
designation p is not used except when citing newspaper
articles.

10:44:29 AM 111
 9. If the journal is from an electronic database, retrieval
information must be included which states the date of
retrieval and the proper time of the database.
10. For more than one publication in one year by the same
author, use small lower case letter to distinguish them.
References: Articles (Citation)
Weekly Magazine/ Article:
Singh, N. and Srinivasan T.N. (2005, May 21-27). Foreign
Capital, Deficits and Growth.Economic and Political
Weekly, XL, (21), 2196-2197.
Monthly Magazine/ Article
Gupta, K. (2005, May). Durables: On a Fast Track. Pitch
11(8), 42-50.
10:44:29 AM 112
 Professional Journal (continuous pagination)
Taylor, M.A. & Callahan, J.L. (2005). Bringing creativity
into being: Underlying assumptions that influence
methods of studying organizational creativity. Advances
in Developing Human Resources, 7, 247-270.
(Re paged issue)
Prasad, T. (2005). Mandi: A Field Sales Campaign for
Teaching Personal Selling Skills through Experiential
Approach. IIMB Management Review Advances in
Developing Human Resources. 17(1), 87-94.
III. Other References (Citation)
Newspaper article
Maira, A. (2005, February 25). Putting humanity into
capitalism. The Economic Times.P.16.

10:44:29 AM 113
 Computer Software
Soldan, T.J. & Spain J.D. (1984). Population growth
[Computer Software]. City, state (2 letters): Conduit.
Electronic Database
U.S. Department of Labor (1991). What work requires of
schools. Retrieved August 15, 24, from
http://wdr.doleta.gov.SCANS/whatwork.pdf
Paper Presentation
McCollum, E.E. & Callahan, L.L. (22, November).The
narrative assessment interview: The use of a
psychoanalytic tool to evaluate a leadership development
program. Paper presented at the American Evaluation
Association Conference, Washington, D.C.
Ph.D.Thesis
Name of the Author, Year, Title, Ph.D.Thesis, University
Name and Place.
10:44:29 AM 114
  Finally, we come to a conclusion of our exercise of
familiarising you with the art of planning and organising a
research programme by describing various stages with
clarity of concepts and illustrations.
We advise readers to resort to IT-enabled techniques for
exploring the various possibilities and arriving at a final
conclusion.
In this context, the author will extend all possible assistance,
especially for finalisation of tests, hypotheses, sample size
determination, mode of analysis and interpretation by
utilising his personal network of global consultants and
professors.
Further, economic considerations— i.e., cost of production
— prevents the author from presenting the entire concepts
fully.
After all, the world of research and business will always be
dynamic, and it is impossible for anyone to present it in a
10:44:29 AM static mode. 115