Task Analysis

Introduction to Task Analysis

• When looking at human computer interaction, we're really

looking at the tasks that users perform.

• We look at the tasks that they're performing now and we

try to restructure those tasks to be more efficient using
new interfaces.
goals vs. tasks
 goals – intentions
what you would like to be true
 tasks – actions
how to achieve it

 GOMS – goals are internal

 HTA – actions external

– tasks are abstractions
Techniques

 Goals, Operators, Methods and Selection (GOMS)

 Cognitive Complexity Theory (CCT)

 Hierarchical Task Analysis (HTA)

GOMS

 GOMS is a specialized human information processor model for

human-computer interaction observation that describes a user's
cognitive structure on four components. In the book The Psychology
of Human Computer Interaction.

 The authors introduce: "a set of Goals, a set of Operators, a set of

Methods for achieving the goals, and a set of Selections rules for
choosing among competing methods for goals
GOMS

Goals
 what the user wants to achieve

Operators
 basic actions user performs

Methods
 decomposition of a goal into subgoals/operators

Selection
 means of choosing between competing methods
GOMS example

GOAL: CLOSE-WINDOW

. [select GOAL: USE-MENU-METHOD

Operations . MOVE-MOUSE-TO-FILE-MENU
. PULL-DOWN-FILE-MENU
. CLICK-OVER-CLOSE-OPTION
GOAL: USE-CTRL-W-METHOD
Operations . PRESS-CONTROL-W-KEYS]

For a particular user Selection Rules:

Rule 1: Select USE-MENU-METHOD unless another

rule applies
Rule 2: If the application is GAME,
select CTRL-W-METHOD
GOMS Model in Action

 We can take the GOMS model and apply it to a number of

different domains. So let's take the example of needing to
communicate a message to a coworker.
GOMS to Cognitive Task Analysis

 GOMS models are human information processor models. This

method largely assumes the human is an input output machine,
and it doesn't get too much into the internal reasoning of the
human.

 Cognitive task analysis is another way of examining tasks, but it

puts a much higher emphasis on things like memory, attention,
and cognitive load. Thus, cognitive task analysis adopts more of
the predictor view of the human's role in the system.
Cognitive Task Analysis
First, we want to collect some preliminary knowledge. In
navigation, for example, we might just watch someone
driving and using a GPS.

Our second step is to identify knowledge representations. For

navigation, for example, we would identify that the structure
of the knowledge is a sequence of actions in order, as well as
some knowledge of things to monitor as we go.
 Then, in the third stage, we actually want to populate those
knowledge representations. With navigation, for example, they
know to start the GPS, to enter an address, and to obey the turns
while monitoring traffic and speed and things like that.

 Then, we analyze and verify the data we acquired. Part of that is

just confirming with the people we observed that our understanding
is correct.

 And finally, we format our results for the intended application. We

need to take those results and format them in a way that's useful for
interface design. We want to develop models that show what the
user was thinking, feeling, and remembering at any given time and
make those relationships explicit
Hierarchical Task Analysis
Other Task Analysis Frameworks

GOMS and cognitive tasks analysis are just two of the many
alternatives to understanding how users approach tasks. More in
line with the human information processor models, there exist
models like KLM, TLM, and MHP, which capture even finer grain
actions for estimating performance speed
Distributed Cognition
 But distributed cognition suggests that models of the mind should be
extended outside the mind.

 give me a hard addition problem.

 <1238 + 6437>

 Okay can I do that in my head?

 No, I honestly can't even remember the numbers you just read to me. But I
have a pen and paper her, and using those, I can pretty easily write down the
numbers. So give those numbers to me again.
 So give those numbers to me again.
 <Amanda: 1238 + 6437>
 Okay, and using that I can now do the calculation by hand, and
the answer is 7675.

 Specifically, the paper took care of remembering the numbers for

me and remembering and tracking my progress so. So, instead of
adding 1238 plus 6437, I was really just adding 8+7, 3+3, 2+4
and so on.
Theory behind Distributed
Cognition
 The term cognition means “to know” and it is commonly referred to as
the human ability to process information
 The traditional view of cognition in HCI (not limited to HCI, also in
other fields like psychology, AI, etc.) limits it the individual processes
within a mind
 This limits us to think of only a user level and how he/she will
interact with a system
 This model is insufficient to really examine today’s complex
systems because they do not take into account interaction between
individuals
 As systems become more complex, and they scale to larger and larger
systems, an individual will no longer have complete control over it,
rather, it requires multiple individuals to collaborate in order to
accomplish a goal
 Navigational Systems (Ships and Airplanes)
 Distributed Cognition tries to extend the concept of what is cognitive
beyond the individual
 main principles that separate the classical
view of cognition and distributed cognition
 Boundaries: The classical view of cognition limits it to just an
individual. Distributed cognition looks for cognitive processes
wherever they occur on the basis of functional relationships of
elements that participate together in the process
 When these principles are applied to human behavior in “the wild”
there are at least three interesting kinds of cognitive processes
 Cognitive processes may be distributed across the members of a
group
 Cognitive processes may involve coordination between internal and
external (material or environment) structure
 Processes may be distributed through time in such a way that the
products of earlier events can transform the nature of later events
Cognitive Load

 cognitive load refers to your minds ability to only deal with a

certain amount of information at a time.
Distributed Cognition as a Lens

 Something important to note is that distributed cognition isn't

really another design principle.
 Distributed cognition is more of a way of looking at interface
design.
 It's a way of approaching the problem that puts your attention
squarely on how to extend the mind across artifacts.
 We can actually view many of our design principles as examples
of distributed cognition
 we can use distributive cognition as a lens through which to view
this design.
I always have my calendar open on the right. That's a way of off loading having to
keep track of my daily schedule in working memory. It bugs me if I have a
teleconference to attend or somewhere I need to go. In fact I rely on this so much
it gets me in trouble. It doesn't keep track of where I need to be for a given
meeting and if I fail to keep track of that in working memory I might end up at
home when I need to be at Georgia Tech
Distributed Cognition to Social
Cognition
 Distributed cognition is concerned with how the mind can be
extended by relations with other artifacts and other individuals.
 Before the days of GPS navigation, a different form of navigation
assistance existed. It was your spouse or your friend sitting in the
passenger seat, reading a map and calling out directions to you.
while mobile devices and artificial intelligence may have replaced
humans in some such systems, there are still lots of places where
the role of distributing across humans is crucial.
At Udacity, we use a tool for managing projects called JIRA. It breaks down
projects into multiple pieces that can be moved through a series of steps and
assigned to different responsible individuals. The entire value of JIRA is that it
manages distributing tasks across members of a team. Thus, when a project is
completed, it is completed by the system comprising the individual team
members and JIRA itself.
Social Cognition

 Social cognition concerns the various psychological processes

that enable individuals to take advantage of being part of a social
group.
 Of major importance to social cognition are the various social
signals that enable us to learn about the world.
 Such signals include facial expressions, such as fear and horror
which warn us of danger, and eye gaze direction, which indicate
where interesting things can be found.
 The Three Key Ingredients of Social Cognition

Mentalism
Refers to schemas. Schemas refer to attitudes about different groups of people,
physical properties of objects, and how someone perceives themself in society.

Process Orientation
Is the way that a stimulus (situations, people, attitudes, where someone lives)
impacts a person and causes different behaviours. For example, a Canadian
study shows people are happier in more rural areas than they are in cities.

Cross-fertilization
Involves the way environmental, biological, and psychological factors are
involved in social behaviour. For example, a person who lives in a more violent
neighbourhood, that has a lack of resources, can grow up to be short-tempered.
The trauma they experienced in childhood can cause them to develop aggressive
responses to certain social situations.