Structure 1.

4
The Mole
Learning Objectives
S1.4.1
Be able to
Understand:
• The mole (mol) is the SI unit of amount of substance. One mole
contains exactly the number of elementary entities given by the
Avogadro constant.
Apply Knowledge to:
• Convert amount of substance, n, to number of specified elementary
entities.

2
• The mole is a fixed number of particles and refers to the amount, n, of
substance.
• The mole is a quantity that chemists use to count elementary
entities.

Atoms (Ar) Molecules (S8) Ions (Na+)

Formula units (NaCl) Giant molecular compounds (SiO2)

Electrons
• The elementary entity being considered should be specified, for
example:
• 1 mole of chlorine atoms (Cl)
• 1 mole of chloride ions (Cl−)
• 1 mole of chlorine molecules (Cl2)

• Formula unit: The empirical formula of any ionic or giant molecular

compound used as an elementary entity.
• So, the mole is defined as the amount of substance that contains 6.02 × 1023
elementary entities of a specific substance.
• Avogadro constant: The number of atoms in exactly 12 grams of carbon-12
atoms. It has the value 6.02 × 1023 mol−1.

Amount of substance (in mol) =

number of particles n=
6.02x 1023 mol-1
 Practice Exercises
1. Calculate the amount (mol) of propan-1-ol, C3H7OH, that contains
1.20 × 1024 atoms of carbon.
2. Calculate the number of molecules of water in 0.0100 mol of water,
H2O.
3. a. Calculate the amount (in mol) of nitric(V) acid, HNO3, that contains
9.0 × 1023 molecules.
b. Calculate the number of oxygen atoms present in 9.0 × 1023
molecules of nitric(V) acid, HNO3.

Portfolio: page 68 ATL S1.4 D

 The importance of the mole
• The same way we use ingredients in certain proportions to prepare food or
cake, chemists need to mix ingredients (reactants) in correct quantities
(proportions). Chemists calculate these quantities from the coefficients of a
balanced chemical equation.
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s)
2 x 6.02x1023 6.02x1023 2 x 6.02x1023
sodium atoms chlorine molecules sodium chloride formula units
2 moles 1 mole 2 moles
45.98 g 70.90 g 116.88 g
The sum of masses of reactants = sum of masses of products.
Measuring moles
• When you take a large bag of the same coins to the bank, the cashier
will not waste their time by counting every coin in the bag. Instead
they will weigh the bag of coins to determine the number of coins
inside. This is possible because the cashier knows the unique mass of
each coin. For example, a coin might weigh 1 g so a bag of coins that
weighs 100 g has 100 coins inside.

• In a similar way, you can weigh out one mole of an element if you
know the relative atomic mass of that element from the periodic
table.
Relative molecular mass and molar mass
Learning Objectives (S1.4.2 and 3)
Be able to
Understand:
• Masses of atoms are compared on a scale relative to 12C and are expressed
as relative atomic mass (ar) and relative formula mass (mr).
• Molar mass, m, has the units g mol-1.
Apply your knowledge to:
• Calculate the molar masses of atoms, ions, molecules and formula units.
• Solve problems involving the relationships between the number of particles,
the amount of substance in mol and the mass in grams
11
Relative atomic mass
• Hydrogen-1 atoms have the smallest relative atomic mass of 1.
A carbon-12 atom has a relative atomic mass of 12, which means a
carbon-12 atom is twelve times heavier than a hydrogen-1 atom.
• These masses are known as relative isotopic masses.

o p ic m a s s : T h e mass
Relative isot e co m pared
r is o to p
of a particula o f a c arbon-
o f 1 / 1 2
to the mass
12 atom

• The whole numbers used to compare the masses of the

Elements H, O and S are approximate. This is mostly because of the
existence of isotopes.
• A sample of an element containing billions of atoms will include a mix
of these isotopes according to their relative abundance. The mass of
an individual atom in the sample is therefore taken as a weighted
average of these different masses.

• The relative scale for comparing the mass of atoms needs a reference
point. The international convention for this is to take the specific form
of carbon known as the isotope carbon-12 as the standard, and
assign this a value of 12 units. In other words, one twelfth of an atom
of carbon-12 has a value of exactly 1.

• Putting this together, we can define the relative atomic mass as:

• Ar = weighted average mass of one atom of the element

1
mass of carbon-12
12
Understanding the concept:
• An atom's atomic weight is defined as the number of times it is
heavier than a hydrogen atom. Carbon atoms are twelve times
heavier than hydrogen atoms.
• The total number of times an atom of a particular element is heavier
than 1/12th the mass of an atom of carbon. Because it is calculated in
ratio to the mass of a carbon atom, an element's atomic weight is also
referred to as relative atomic mass.
• In other words, relative atomic mass is the comparison of 1/12th the
mass of one carbon atom. This is the reason why an atom's atomic
mass is defines as relative atomic mass
 Nature of Science
Hydrogen was initially chosen as the standard for relative masses
because chemists knew that the element had the lightest atoms,
which could therefore be assigned a mass of one.
Why was C-12 chosen later as the new standard?

Later, when more accurate values for atomic masses were obtained,
chemists knew that an element could contain atoms of different masses,
known as isotopes. It then became necessary to choose a single isotope
as the international reference standard for relative atomic masses. In
1961, carbon-12 was chosen as the new standard.
 Linking Question… (S3.1)
Atoms increase in mass as groups are descended in the periodic table.
What properties might be related to this trend?
Atoms increase in mass as a group is descended in the periodic table mainly due to
the increase in the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of the atoms.

Since there is a close (but not perfect) correlation between atomic number and
relative atomic mass, many periodic properties correlate with increasing mass
including electronegativity, ionization energy, electron affinity, atomic radii and ionic
radii.

However, these properties are more a consequence of the increasing charge of the
nucleus than of increasing mass, so the observed correlations do not have a direct
causal link.
 Linking Question… (S3.1)
Atoms increase in mass as groups are descended in the periodic table.
What properties might be related to this trend?

The group 1 metals show a negative correlation between melting point and
mass, whereas the halogens show a positive correlation between melting point
and mass.
Once again, the correlations do not confirm a direct causal link between
melting point and mass.
 Relative Formula Mass
The relative formula mass of a compound is the sum of the atomic masses
of all the atoms in a molecular formula or the formula unit of an ionic
compound.
It is, therefore, the weighted average mass of one molecule or formula
unit compared to 1/12th the mass of an atom of carbon-12.
Since it is a relative mass, it has no units.

The relative formula mass of a carbon dioxide molecule (44.01) is

approximately the same as the combined relative atomic mass of 44
hydrogen atoms, each with a relative atomic mass of 1.01.
Practice
1. Calculate the relative molecular mass of carbon dioxide (CO2).
2. Calculate the relative molecular mass of ammonia (NH3).
3. Calculate the relative molecular mass of glucose (C6H12O6).
4. Calculate the relative molecular mass of ethanol (C2H5OH).
5. Calculate the relative molecular mass of methane (CH4).
Hydrates
• Many ionic compounds form hydrates:
Compounds in which water molecules form coordination bonds with
the ions.

CuSO4ᐧ 5 H2O (s) → CuSO4 (s) + 5 H2 O

hydrated anhydrous

Calculate the relative molecular mass Mr of Copper sulfate pentahydrate CuSO4ᐧ 5 H2O (s).
Molar Mass
• Molar mass, M, of a chemical substance is the mass of 1 mol of that
substance.
• Molar mass is numerically equal to relative molecular mass (for
substances with molecular and ionic structures) or relative atomic
mass (for substances with atomic structure).
• For example, M(Na) = 22.99 g.mol–1 and M(H2O) = 18.02 g.mol–1

25
 Atomic mass / molar mass
Atomic mass is the mass of an atom in a.m.u or u
Molar mass is the mass of a mole in g/mol
23
𝑁𝑎 Atomic mass of Na = 23 u
11
1u = 1.67 x 10-24 g

1 atom of Na 23 u = 23 x 1.67 x 10-24 g = 3.84 x 10-23 g

12 atoms of Na 12 x 3.84 x 10-23 g = 4.61 x 10-22 g
6.02 x 1023 atoms of Na 6.02 x 1023 x 3.84 x 10-23 = 23 g
NA
M = A g/mol
1 mol atoms of Na 23 g
Find the molar masses of the following compounds
1. NaHCO3

2. Sr(CN)2

3. Al2(SO3)3

4. C12H22O11

5. (NH4)2CO3
Number of moles, mass and molar mass
t h si de s of
h e un i ts on bo
to note th at t tical.
u s ef ul be i de n
● It can be ould wo r k ou t to
uatio n s h
the eq
M = molar mass (g mol-1)
n = amount (mol)
m = mass (g)

n= m=nxM

28
Practice
 Empirical and molecular formula and
chemical analysis (S1.4.4)
• Learning Objectives : You will Be able to
Understand
The empirical formula of a compound gives the simplest ratio of the number of atoms of each element
present in one molecule of the compound.
The molecular formula gives the actual number of atoms of each element present in one molecule of the
compound.
Apply your knowledge to:
Determine percentage composition of each element in a compound.
Determine the empirical formula of a compound from its percentage composition by mass and vice-versa.
Determine the molecular formula of a compound from its empirical formula and its molar mass.
Empirical / Molecular Formulas
Empirical formula – the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms it
contains.
Molecular formula – multiple of the empirical formula showing the
actual number of atoms of each element present.
Empirical means from experimental data.

Molecular formula can only be determined if the molar mass is known

(or found via another experiment).
Empirical / Molecular Formulas
The empirical formula may or may not be the same as the
molecular formula
Empirical / Molecular Formulas
For simple molecular compounds, there are many possible
multiples of the empirical formula.

C2H4 , C3H6 , C4H8 (Molecular Formula)

CH2 Empirical formula

Ionic compounds (NaCl, MgO) and Giant covalent Compounds (SiO2)

Molecular formula is the same as empirical formula
Percent Composition by Mass
The mole ratio of elements in a compound is the ratio of the amounts of
these elements in the compound.
1 mole of N2O3 2 moles of N, 3 moles of O

Mole ratio of N atoms to O atoms is: 2:3

The mole ratio can be used to calculate the percentage composition by

mass of a compound from its formula.
Example
• Find Percentage composition of each element in H2O

37
Practice
•Percent Composition Calculations
Calculate the percentage composition of each element in the formulas shown below.
Show your work
1. Magnesium carbonate MgCO 3
2. Sulfuric Acid H2SO4
3. Sodium Nitrate NaNO3
4. Iron (III) Phosphate FePO4
5. Ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4
Determination of Empirical formula
Determination of Empirical Formula
Determination of Empirical Formula
A hydrocarbon contains 85.7% by mass of carbon. What is the empirical formula?

• Step 1: Find %’s

• 85.7 % C
• 100-85.7 = 14.3% H (Hydrocarbons contain H and C)

• Step 2: Convert to grams

• 85.7 g C
• 14.3 g H

• Step 3: Convert to moles

• 85.7 g C x mol/12.01 g C = 7.14 mol C
• 14.3 g H x mol/1.01 g H = 14.16 mol H
• Step 4: Divide by the smallest number of moles.
• 7.14 mol / 7.14 mol = 1
• 14.16 mol / 7.14 mol = 1.98 = 2

• Step 5: The numbers in Step 4 are whole numbers so this is the

end of the problem.
• The empirical formula is CH2
 Determination of Empirical formula
A compound of iron and oxygen is analyzed and found to contain
69.94% iron and 30.06% oxygen. Find the empirical formula of the
compound.
Fe O How to deal Non-Integers
Percentage/mass 69.94% 30.06% 1.25 x4 5
Mole ratio 69.94/55.85 30.06/16.00
= 1.252 mol = 1.879 mol 1.3 x3 4
Simple Ratio 1.252/1.252 1.879/1.252 1.5 x2 3
=1 = 1.5
Whole Number Ratio 2 3 1.75 x4 7

Fe2O3
 Practice

• Work out the empirical formulas of each of the

following:
•a Compound A, which contains 12.5% hydrogen NH2
and 87.5% nitrogen.
•b Compound B, which has the following
percentage composition: C 26.7%, O 71.1% and H HCO2
2.2%.
•c Compound C, which contains 48.6% C, 10.8% H,
21.6% O and 18.9% N C3H8NO
Determination of Molecular Formula
1. Solve for empirical formula. (It may be given to you or you may
have to solve for it.)
2. Find the empirical molar mass.
3. Divide the given molecular or molar mass by the empirical molar
mass – this answer should be a whole number.
4. Multiply the empirical formula by the number found in step 3.
Example
• The empirical formula of a compound of boron and hydrogen is BH3
Its molar mass is 27.7g/mol. Determine the molecular formula of the
compound.
• Empirical Formula mass = BH3 = 10.81 + (3x1.01) = 13.84 g/mol
n= 27.7/13.8 = 2
Molecular formula = 2(BH3) = B2H6
 Practice
• Work out the molecular formula of each of the
following given the empirical formula and the
relative molecular mass:
•a CH2, Mr = 70 C5H10
H2O2
• b OH, Mr = 34
•c C2H5O, Mr = 90 C4H10O2
 EMPIRICAL FORMULAS FROM
COMBUSTION
1. Sometimes you are not given the percentages, but have to calculate
them from a combustion problem.

2. The problems usually give you an amount of original substance and

amounts of CO2 and H2O that are formed from the combustion
reactions.

3. Make these assumptions:

• All of the carbon in the original sample is converted completely to CO2.
• All of the hydrogen in the original sample is converted completely to H2O.
 EXAMPLE
You have a compound composed of carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen.
When 0.1156g of this compound is burned, 0.1638g of CO2 and 0.1676g of H2O
is produced. Determine the empirical formula of the compound.
 Practice

• For each of the following calculate the empirical formula:

•a When 2.20 g of a hydrocarbon, D, is burnt in excess
oxygen, 6.90 g of CO2 and 2.83 g of water are produced. CH2
•b When 1.52 g of compound E, which contains carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen only, is burnt in excess oxygen, 3.04 g
CO2 and 1.24 g H2O are produced. C2H4O
Converting empirical formula to % by mass
Deducing the coefficients in an equation from
reacting masses
Worked Example
Solutions and Concentrations
• Learning Objectives (S1.4.5)
Be able to
Understand:
the molar concentration is determined by the amount of solute and the
volume of solution. (a standard solution is one of known
concentration).
Apply your knowledge to:
solve problems involving the molar concentration, amount of solute
and volume of solution.
Solution
• Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two or more components.
Each solution consists of a solvent and one or more solutes.
• The solvent is usually the major component of the solution, so the
properties of the whole solution are like the properties of the solvent.
The other components of the solution are called solutes.

An aqueous Solution is a
solution in which water is a
solvent
Which solution contains the most particles per cm3?

57
 Concentrated and Dilute Solutions
• A concentrated solution
contains a large proportion
of solute, and so has a high
ratio of solute to solvent
• A dilute solution has a
small proportion of solute,
and so has a low ratio of
solute to solvent.
Mass concentration
• The composition of a solution is sometimes expressed as the mass
concentration, Cm , of the solute. It is grams of solute dissolved per dm3
of the solution.

C= C : Mass Concentration in g.dm–3 or g.cm–3

m: Mass of solute dissolved in “g”.
V: Volume of the solution in “L”.
Practice
Calculate mass concentration of a solution, where 4.5 g of NaOH is
dissolved in 500 cm3 the solution.
Molar Concentration (Molarity)
• Molar concentration, C, also known as molarity, is moles of solute per dm3
of the solution.

• The most common unit is mol dm-3 . For very dilute solutions smaller units
(mmoldm-3 or µmoldm-3 ) can be used.
• 1 mmoldm-3 = 1x10-3 moldm-3
• 1 µmoldm-3 = 1x10-6 moldm-3
 Example
• Calculate the molar concentration of sodium chloride, in moldm–3 , in a
solution prepared by dissolving 3.60g of NaCl(s) in water to make 25.0cm3 of
the final solution.
Relation between Cm and C

Cm = = = C x M (solute)
Practice
1. Calculate the molar concentration of a sodium chloride solution that
was produced from dissolving 50.00 grams of NaCl in 1.35 dm 3 of
solution.
2. Calculate the molar concentration of a solution that was produced by
dissolving 40.00 grams of KNO3 in 800 cm3 of solution.
3. Calculate the mass of Na2CO3 that is required to produce 500 cm3 of a
0.300 mol.dm-3 solution.
4. Calculate the mass of NaOH that is necessary to produce 3.500 dm 3 of
a 0.350 mol.dm-3 solution.
Dilution
• It is a common practice to store chemicals in the form of concentrated
solutions (so-called stock solutions) and dilute them to the required
concentration when needed.
• Stock solutions with a known concentration of the solute are called
standard solutions
• Dilution Formula:
• Upon dilution, n of solute is conserved
n1= n2
C1 V1 = C2 V2
Example
• A standard solution was prepared by dissolving 6.624 g of sodium carbonate,
Na2CO3 , in deionized water using a 250cm3 volumetric flask. An analytical
pipette was used to transfer 10.0cm3 sample of this solution to a 100 cm3
volumetric flask, and the flask was topped up to the graduation mark with
deionized water. Calculate the concentration, in mol.dm–3 , of sodium
carbonate in the new solution.
n (Na2CO3) = m/M = 6.624/105.99 = 0.06250 mol
C1 = 0.06250/0.25 = 0.250 mol dm-3
n1= n2 (Upon dilution, n of solute is conserved)
C1 V1 = C2 V2
C2 = C1 V1 / V2 = (0.250 x 10)/100 = 0.0250 mol.dm-3
66
Practice
• A standard solution was prepared by dissolving 2.497g of copper(II)
sulfate pentahydrate, CuSO4 •5H2O, in deionized water using a
100cm3 volumetric flask. A 5.00cm3 sample of this solution was
diluted to 250.0cm3 . Calculate the concentration, in mol.dm–3 , of
copper(II) sulfate in the final solution.
 Titrations
Titration: A technique in which a standard solution is used to analyze
another and determine its concentration.

Standard solution: A solution of accurately known concentration for use in

titrations.

Primary standard: A reagent of high purity and stability used to prepare a

standard solution

Titrations can also be used to determine the percentage purity or molar

mass of an acid or base, or the amount of water of crystallization in a
hydrated salt. Other types of titration include redox and precipitation
titrations.
Preparation
of a
standard
solution
Acid-Base Titration
Acid-Base Titration
The volume of one solution is accurately measured using a burette as it
is added to another solution, the volume of which has been accurately
measured by pipette into a conical flask (on a white tile)

There is normally a visual method using an indicator (acid–base or

redox indicator) of knowing when the reaction is complete (the end-
point). In some titrations, the pH or temperature may be measured
instead End-point: The point in a titration
when the reaction is complete as
shown by the change in the color
of the indicator
Acid-Base Titration
The initial and final burette readings should both be recorded.

The difference between the two measurements can then be used to

calculate the titre delivered in cm3 .

The measurement is repeated until at least two concordant titres

(usually ±0.1cm3 ) are obtained. Any non-concordant results are
reported in the raw data table but marked as anomalous and excluded
from the calculation of the mean titre.

Another approach is to average all values, apart from obvious outliers.

Practice
Dilution Factor = the number of times the solution is diluted.
Df = =
Back Titration
In a typical acid–base back titration, a quantity of a
base is added to an excess of an acid (or vice
versa). All the base and some of the acid react.
The acid remaining is then titrated with a standard
alkali and its amount determined. From the
results, the amount of acid which has reacted with
the base can be found and the amount of base can
then be calculated.
 Back Titration

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R14WWiIIJ0o
Avogadro’s Law
• Learning Objectives (S1.4.6)
Understand
Avogadro's law states that equal volumes of all gases measured under
the same conditions of temperature and pressure contain equal
numbers of molecules.
Apply your knowledge to:
Solve problems involving the mole ratio of reactants and/or products
and the volume of gases.
Avogadro’s Law

o A vo g a dro ’s
According t ns
t hr ee b a llo o
law, the m e .
ua l in v o lu
will be eq

Exactly 1 mole of three different gases are placed inside three balloons.

Which balloon would occupy the largest volume?

What is Avogadro’s law?
“Equal volumes of all gases, when measured at the same temperature and
pressure, contain an equal number of molecules.”
Since one mole of any (ideal) gas (measured at the same temperature and
pressure) occupies the same volume (the molar gas volume, 22.7dm3 at
standard room temperature and pressure, STP), equal volumes of different
gases will contain the same amount of gas particles (in moles)
Represent this mathematically:

V⍺n

83
Explaining Avogadro’s law

la rg e a m o u n t of
e
Explain why the size of the In relation to th t he s i z e o f
individual molecules does not alter sp a c e in ag a s,
e m p t y lig ib l e .
the volume occupied. o lec u les is n e g
indiv id u a l m
84
Practice
Practice
Example
• A balloon has been filled to a volume of 1.90 dm3 with 0.0920 mol of
helium gas. If 0.0210 mol of additional helium is added to the balloon
while the temperature and pressure are held constant, what is the new
volume of the balloon?
V1 = 1.90 dm3 n1 = 0.0920 mol n2 = 0.0920 + 0.0210 = 0.1130 mol
V2 = ?

V2 = ( 1.90 x 0.1130 )/ 0.092 = 2.33 dm3