UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF

ENGINEERING

Bachelor of Engineering (Aerospace Engineering)

DISCOVER . LEARN .
EMPOWER
 20ASA-402
Academic Session : July 2023
Semester : VII

Mr. Amit Kumar

Faculty of Aerospace
Department,
Chandigarh University
amit.e14058@cumail.in
 UNIT-I

Introduction to Turbo Machinery

A turbomachine is a device where mechanical energy in the form of shaft work, is transferred
either to or from a continuously flowing fluid by the dynamic action of rotating blade rows. A
turbomachine is basically a rotating machine, the rotating wheel is called a rotor / runner /
impeller, which will be immersed in fluid continuum. The fluid medium can be gas / steam /
water / air. The interact ion between the fluid and the turbo machine blades a result in fluid
dynamic lift. A turbomachine produces change in enthalpy of the fluid passing through it.
 Classification of turbo machines
• 1. Based on energy transfer a) Energy is given by fluid to the rotor - Power generating turbo machine E.g.
Turbines
• b) Energy given by the rotor to the fluid – Power absorbing turbo machineE.g. Pumps, blowers and compressors
• 2. Based on fluid flowing in turbo machine
• a) Water
• b) Air
• c) Steam
• d) Hot gases
• e) Liquids like petrol etc.
• 3. Based on direction of flow through the impeller or vanes or blades, with reference to the axis of shaft rotation
• a) Axial flow – Axial pump, compressor or turbine
• b) Mixed flow – Mixed flow pump, Francis turbine
• c) Radial flow – Centrifugal pump or compressor
• d) Tangential flow – Pelton water turbine
• A radial flow machine may also be classified into radial inward flow (centripetal) or radial outward
flow (centrifugal) types depending on whether the flow is directed towards or away from the shaft
axis.
• 4. Based on condition of fluid in turbo machine
• a) Impulse type (constant pressure) E.g. Pelton water turbine
• b) Reaction type (variable pressure) E.g. Francis reaction turbines

• 5. Based on position of rotating shaft

• a) Horizontal shaft – Steam turbines
• b) Vertical shaft – Kaplan water turbines
• c) Inclined shaft
 Diagram

Figure 1.1.2 An Axial Turbo

Machine Figure 1.1.3 A
centrifugal compressor
stage
• Turbomachines can be classified into two main categories based on their primary function: turbines
and compressors. Each category can further be divided into several subtypes based on their design,
working principles, and applications. Here's a comprehensive classification of turbomachines:
• Turbines:
• Turbines are devices that extract energy from a fluid and convert it into mechanical work. They are
widely used in power generation, aerospace propulsion, marine propulsion, and other applications.
Turbines can be classified as follows:

• a. Steam Turbines: These turbines are used to convert the energy of high-pressure steam into
mechanical work. Steam turbines are commonly used in power plants to generate electricity.

• b. Gas Turbines: Gas turbines operate on the principle of converting the energy of hot gases (usually
produced by burning fuels like natural gas or aviation fuel) into mechanical work. They find extensive
use in aircraft engines, power generation, and industrial applications.
• c. Hydraulic Turbines: Hydraulic turbines are used in hydropower plants to convert the energy of
flowing water (hydrokinetic energy) into mechanical work. They include Francis turbines, Kaplan
turbines, Pelton turbines, and others.

• d. Wind Turbines: Wind turbines harness the kinetic energy of the wind to generate mechanical work,
which is then converted into electricity through generators. They are used in wind farms for
renewable energy generation.

• e. Steam Expansion Turbines: These turbines are used in various industrial processes where steam
pressure needs to be reduced, and the released energy is utilized for mechanical work.
• Compressors:
• Compressors are devices that add energy to a fluid in the form of increased pressure and velocity.
They are used in various applications, including air compression, gas transmission, refrigeration, and
more. Compressors can be classified as follows:

• a. Centrifugal Compressors: Centrifugal compressors use a rotating impeller to accelerate the fluid
radially outward, increasing its pressure. They are commonly used in industrial processes,
refrigeration, and air conditioning systems.

• b. Axial Compressors: Axial compressors use a series of rotating blades to compress the fluid in the
axial direction. They are commonly used in aircraft engines, gas turbines, and power generation
applications.
• c. Rotary Compressors: Rotary compressors compress the fluid through a rotary motion, typically by
the use of rotary vane or screw designs. They find application in various industrial processes and air
compression systems.

• d. Reciprocating Compressors: Reciprocating compressors use a piston-cylinder arrangement to

compress the fluid. They are used in small-scale air compression applications and refrigeration
systems.

• e. Diaphragm Compressors: Diaphragm compressors utilize flexible diaphragms to compress the

fluid. They are suitable for handling hazardous or corrosive gases.
 Classification of turbo machines(Cont..)

• In general, the two kinds of turbomachines encountered in practice are open and closed
turbomachines. Open machines such as propellers, windmills, and unshrouded fans act on an infinite
extent of fluid, whereas closed machines operate on a finite quantity of fluid as it passes through a
housing or casing.
• Turbomachines are also categorized according to the type of flow. When the flow is parallel to
the axis of rotation, they are called axial flow machines, and when flow is perpendicular to the axis of
rotation, they are referred to as radial (or centrifugal) flow machines. There is also a third category,
called mixed flow machines, where both radial and axial flow velocity components are present.
 Application

• The turbomachine is used in several applications, the primary ones being electrical power generation,
aircraft propulsion and vehicular propulsion for civilian and military use.
• The units used in power generation are steam, gas and hydraulic turbines, ranging in capacity from a
few kilowatts to several hundred and even thousands of megawatts, depending on the application.
• Here, the turbomachines drives the alternator at the appropriate speed to produce power of the right
frequency.
• In aircraft and heavy vehicular propulsion for military use, the primary driving element has been the
gas turbine.
 Axial Stages
• In an axial flow turbomachine or its stage (Figure. 1.1.2) the radial component of the fluid velocity is negligible.
The change in radius between the entry and exit of the stage is small. The through flow in such machines mainly
occurs in the axial direction, hence the term “axial stage”.
• An axial machine can be easily connected with other components. For example, in a gas turbine plant this
configuration offers mechanically and aerodynamically a convenient connection between the compressor,
combustion chamber and turbine.
• For the same reason, axial stages are widely employed in multi-stage turbomachines. Such a stage is ideally
suited for high flow rates.
• The area of cross-section available to the flow in an axial stage is
• Suitable values of the hub and tip diameters can be chosen to provide the required area. For aircraft propulsion,
the axial flow configuration of compressors and turbines has a special advantage of low frontal area, resulting in
a lower aircraft drag.
• The turning of the fluid in axial stages is not too severe and the length of the blade passages is short. This leads to
lower aerodynamic losses and higher stage efficiencies.
• On account of the individual blade root fixtures, the rotor of an axial stage has limited mechanical strength. This
restricts the maximum permissible peripheral speed of the rotor.
 Radial Stages
• In the radial stage of a turbomachine the through flow of the fluid occurs mainly in the radial direction, i.e.
perpendicular to the axis of rotation. Therefore, the change of radius between the entry and exit of the stage is
finite. This causes a finite change in the energy level of the fluid due to the centrifugal energy.
• A radial turbomachine may be inward-flow type or outward-flow type. Since the purpose of compressors,
blowers, fans and pumps is to increase the energy level of the fluid, they are of the outward-flow radial type as
shown in Figure. 1.1.3. Radial gas turbines are mostly of the inward flow type as shown in Figure. 1.1.4; the fluid
transfers its centrifugal energy to the rotor in flowing from a larger to a smaller radius. The Ljungstrom steam
turbine (Figure. 1.1.5) is a double rotation outward flow radial turbine. The outward flow configuration is chosen
here to accommodate the large volume flow rate of the rapidly expanding steam.
Figure 1.1.3 A centrifugal
compressor stage
Figure 1.1.4 An inward-flow
radial turbine stage
• Referring to Figure. 1.1.3, the areas of cross-section at various stations in a centrifugal compressor stage are
given by

• For given impeller and shaft diameters and change of radius from entry to exit the area at the entry to the stage is
restricted by equation for Ai. At this station a compressible fluid has the largest volume requiring a
correspondingly large area. Conversely, the same is true for an inward flow gas turbine (Figure. 1.1.4). On
account of this, radial flow stages do not offer the best geometrical configuration for high flow rates. In radial
flow stages the flow invariably turns through 90° traversing a much longer blade passage compared to that in the
axial types. This leads to comparatively higher losses and lower efficiencies. In a multi-stage radial machine the
flow is required to change its direction drastically several times in long interconnecting flow passages. This is
obviously an undesirable feature both mechanically and aerodynamically. Therefore, a majority of radial
machines are single-stage machines; very few multistage radial machines employ more than three stages.
• Since the power developed is proportional to the mass flow rate, and the number of stages that can be
employed is much smaller compared to axial machines, radial flow machines are not suited for large
power requirements.
• Radial stages employ ‘one piece’ rotors in which the blades are an integral part of the main body. This
makes a radial rotor mechanically stronger than an axial type in which the blades are separately fixed.
Therefore, radial machines can employ higher peripheral speeds.

• On account of higher peripheral speeds and additional change in the energy level of the fluid caused
due to centrifugal energy, much higher values of the pressure ratio per stage are obtained in the radial
stage compared to the axial type.

• Radial flow compressors and turbines for large power and thrust requirements have a larger overall
diameter of the aeroengine, leading to an unacceptably large frontal area. Therefore, radial machines
are unsuitable for the propulsion of large aircrafts.
 Mixed Flow Stages

• For certain requirements, the flow in a turbine, pump or blower stage is partly radial and partly axial.
Such a stage is known as a mixed flow stage; it combines the advantages of both the axial and radial
types.

• The flow at the exit of a mixed flow machine (Figure. 1.1.6) has finite components in both radial and
axial directions. In this type of a pump the head generated due to centrifugal energy is a considerable
proportion of the total head generated in the stage.

• The mixed flow configuration has been widely used in hydraulic pumps and turbines. This type has
also been found advantageous in some blowers but it has yet to make its appearance in compressible
flow turbo-machines, viz. steam and gas turbines and compressors.
Figure 1.1.6 Mixed flow
machines
Kaplan turbine
• The Kaplan turbine is a propeller-type water turbine which
has adjustable blades. It was developed in 1913 by
Austrian professor Viktor Kaplan, who combined
automatically adjusted propeller blades with automatically
adjusted wicket gates to achieve efficiency over a wide
range of flow and water level.
Pelton turbine
• Pelton Turbine is a Tangential flow impulse turbine in
which the pressure energy of water is converted into
kinetic energy to form high speed water jet and this jet
strikes the wheel tangentially to make it rotate. It is also
called as Pelton Wheel.
Francis turbine
• Francis Turbine is a combination of both impulse and
reaction turbine, where the blades rotate using both
reaction and impulse force of water flowing through them
producing electricity more efficiently.
• Francis turbine is used for the production of electricity in
hydro power stations. Majorly there are 2 turbines flow
patterns on which they work, namely radial and axial flow
concepts.
Francis turbine
 1.2.1 Laws of Thermo-dynamics

• Thermodynamic and aerodynamic analyses of turbines, compressors, fans and blowers require the
relations between force, mass and velocity. The following laws are frequently used in dealing with
problems of design and operation of these machines.
• 1. First law of thermodynamics—energy equation in its various forms.
• 2. Second law of thermodynamics—entropy and loss relations.
• 3. Law of conservation of mass—continuity relations.
• 4. Newton’s second law of motion—momentum equation.
• First Law of Thermodynamics
• The first law of thermodynamics states that when a system executes a cyclic process, the algebraic
sum of the work transfers is proportional to the algebraic sum of the heat transfers.
•
• When heat and work terms are expressed in the same units, the above relation is written as
• Turbine/Compressor Work:
• Turbines and compressors are commonly used in various engineering applications, including power
generation, aviation, and industrial processes. They involve the conversion of fluid energy (typically
in the form of a gas) into mechanical work or vice versa.
• Turbine Work: In a turbine, high-pressure fluid (usually steam or gas) enters the device and expands,
releasing energy as it flows through the turbine blades. This energy is converted into mechanical
work, which can be used to drive generators, produce electricity, or perform other tasks.

• Compressor Work: A compressor, on the other hand, is used to increase the pressure of a fluid. It
requires mechanical work to be inputted to achieve this compression. Compressors are commonly
used in air conditioning systems, gas pipelines, and various industrial processes.
• Both turbine and compressor processes involve some level of inefficiency due to irreversibilities, such
as friction and heat transfer losses. The Second Law of Thermodynamics dictates that these processes
cannot be perfectly efficient, meaning that some energy will always be lost in the form of heat.

• Nozzle/Diffuser Work:
• Nozzles and diffusers are components designed to accelerate or decelerate fluid flow while converting
between pressure energy and kinetic energy.
• Nozzle Work: A nozzle is a device that accelerates a fluid as it expands, typically from a high-pressure
region to a low-pressure region. The fluid gains kinetic energy at the expense of its pressure energy.
The work done by a nozzle is generally negligible, as the primary purpose is to increase the kinetic
energy of the fluid.
• Diffuser Work: A diffuser is the opposite of a nozzle. It is used to slow down the fluid flow and
increase the pressure. As the fluid decelerates, its kinetic energy is converted back into pressure
energy. Similar to the nozzle, the work done by a diffuser is usually small compared to the overall
energy conversion.

• Both nozzles and diffusers are subject to the Second Law of Thermodynamics, which means that they
are also constrained by efficiency limits. In real-world applications, there are always losses and
inefficiencies due to factors like friction and turbulence
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