6.

WRITING SKILLS
INTRODUCTION
The need for sharing information among human beings
does not end with communication through spoken
language and non-verbally
 Sometimes factors like geographical distance and lack
of time for face to face conversation, make oral
communication unreliable means of communication
 Thus, written communication becomes the only
alternative means of communication
 ….Cont.
 Think about the following situations:
 What could managers in big institutions do to communicate
serious issues with their subordinates on daily routine?
 How tough could it be for instructors assigning their students
through oral examinations especial for big classes?
 With writing, it has been easy for different people to
communicate in different places with large number of people.
 This is possible through written pieces of information
including letters, memos, emails, newspapers, books, cards
etc.
What is writing?
 Writing is the act of drawing letters of alphabet of a given
language, symbols, and marks on a plain surface especially a
piece of paper in order to communicate a message.
The letters you draw represent sounds of a given language
 Simply, writing is a representation of spoken words (spoken
language) on a piece of paper
 With technological advancement, writing is also made
possible electronically through computers, iPad, cellular
phones etc.
 ….Cont.
 However writing is not just a mere drawing of the letters of
alphabet to communicate message; it is beyond that.
 Effective writing for successful communication uses
systematic writing conventions guiding how we should write
what we want to communicate
 One has to learn some writing rules in order to convey
proper message in written form
 Colleges and University students should be aware of the
fact that in academic writing how they write is as important
as what they write
Essay writing
 An essay is a piece of writing based on the writer’s point of
view about certain subject matter.
 It presents writer’s own understanding of the reality. It is a
reaction of the writer on certain topic.
 A complete essay is organised into three major parts,
namely:
i. Introductory paragraph (introduction)
ii. Main text
iii. Concluding paragraph (conclusion)
i. Introduction of an Essay
 Introduction of an essay introduces the reader to the essay.
 It gives a brief fore remarks on what the essay is about.
 You can introduce your essay by positing a quotation,
asking a question etc.
 The introduction must clearly reveal the theme of the essay
 Some people include the list of the points/factors intended
to be discussed in the essay just after the introduction
paragraph
 These points are listed down according to their hierarchy on
your scale of preference.
Example of a possible introduction
No body can ignore the fact that AIDS has been a world
notorious enemy since 1980s. The disease spreads widely to
every part of the world due to massive people interactions.
Scientists are doing their best to come out with both the
vaccination and cure of the virus but end up to vain. However
there are significant development in fighting the virus that has
been archived to-date. Education on how to avoid contracting
the virus is widely spread and there are drugs which are used
to slow the effects of the virus in the human body. This essay
is about the effects that the disease has brought in our
communities.
 ….Cont.
There are many effects for the spread of HIV/AIDS in
Tanzania including death, increased number of orphans,
economic stagnation and over conditioning by external donors
in the country. Consequently…
ii. Main Text of an Essay
 This is the second part of an essay.
 This is the part that follows the introduction.
 The body of the essay provides details for the points by
discussing each
 The main body is organised in different paragraphs
 ….Cont.
 Each paragraph carries a single complete idea
 Each paragraph must start with a topic sentence
 This is a key sentence that summarises your point
 Each argument must be supported with evidences such as
facts, quotes, examples and statistics.
 The number of the points to include for each essay depends
on the available points and, or instructions
iii. Conclusion
 Is also called concluding paragraph.
 It marks the end or closure of your essay.
 Simply, a conclusion provides concluding notes or end
remarks of your essay.
 You may reiterate/summarise the main points without
repeating previous words exactly
 It may include your opinion on the topic
 You may include suggestions/recommendations etc.
Citations and References in Academic Writing
 Academic writing, presentations and serious reading are part
and parcel of everyday life of University students and
academic staff
 Academic writings are graded basing on several factors, one
being how the writers support their arguments by citing other
scholars researched ideas
 For instance, it is illogical and unethical in the academic
world to give the following arguments without citing their
sources
 The population of Tanzania is fifty five million people…….
Tanzania exported a million tonnes of Tanzanite last year…..
 ….Cont.
 There are several forms of citations and references varying
across different academic fields and professions
 All the forms have specific rules of citing and referencing
 The most common and widely used are listed :
 ….Cont.
(a) MLA, Modern Language Association
 Commonly used in Languages, Literature, sociology,
philosophy, economics, anthropology, law etc.
(b) Chicago Style
 This is common among business people, history, in fine arts
etc.
(c) APA, American Psychological Association
 Common in education, psychology and science in general
 Important Terminologies
(a) Citation Vs Reference
 Citation appears within the text informing the reader where the
information originated.
 Citation normally includes author’s surname, year of
publication and sometimes a page number for direct quoted
materials
 A reference is a list that gives a reader details about all the
sources cited in the work
 A reference includes author(s) surnames and initials, year of
publication, title, place of publication and publisher
 The references are listed alphabetically at the end of the work
 ….Cont.
(b) Reference Vs Bibliography
 A reference list and a bibliography look a lot similar
 They are both composed of entries arranged alphabetically
including the same information
 They both presented at the end of the work
 However, a reference list should generally contain only
sources you have cited in your work
 A bibliography on the other hand is a list of all sources you
consulted to generate your ideas about the topic whether cited
in the work or not
 ….Cont.
(c) Acknowledgements Vs Acknowledgement
 Acknowledgements is a page in a work which normally
appears immediately after the table of contents where you
mention individuals and organisations that supported the
completion of your work
 Acknowledgement/Acknowledging simply means showing
recognition to some other peoples’ work you consulted while
preparing your work
 Citations, referencing and bibliography are good examples
of acknowledgement
 Why Citations and References in Academics?
 It is important to acknowledge when you incorporate other peoples’ idea
in your work
 It is both unethical and an academic offence to use other peoples’ ideas
as if they are your own ideas
i. Acknowledgement add extra credits to your work
ii. Make your work more reliable and acceptable to other scholars
iii. It proves to the reader that you have done deep research before writing
your work
iv. It shows that you are a responsible scholar by giving credits to other
peoples’ ideas
v. Directs readers to trace the materials if they need deeper understanding
vi. It is one of the strategies to avoid plagiarism
Sources of Citations and References
 Some common sources of materials for citations and
references are;
 Books including electronic books
 Periodicals such as journals, newspapers and magazines
 Online sources such as websites, blogs and forums
 Speeches from proper authority
 Personal communication: Letters, emails, interviews,
telephone conversations etc.
 Other sources of information: films, documentaries,
televisions etc.
Plagiarism
 Plagiarism is sometimes referred to as academic theft
 Happens when you use other people’s work and present it as
your own original idea intentionally or unintentionally
o Why should Plagiarism be avoided by any cost?
 It is an unethical issue, a scandal by itself
 Compromises your integrity
 Lose respect to your mentors, peers and community at large
 It can cost you financial when required to compensate
 Can ruin your future career advancement
 ….Cont.
How to avoid plagiarism?
 Use quotes with caution
 Quotation marks should be used anytime you use some one else’s
direct words together
 Paraphrase the source ideas
 Re-write the source ideas in your own words, use synonyms
 Cite properly
 Use the agreed format of citation properly: APA, MLA etc.
 Include a reference list/ a bibliography page
 Use plagiarism checker. This is an online checking tool which
identifies copied materials