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2E8 Semiconductors 2014
2E8 Semiconductors 2014
Materials
Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering
OBJECTIVES:
This course deals with an introduction to semiconductor materials.
SYLLABUS:
Semiconductors: Intrinsic silicon, extrinsic n and p type silicon,
mobility of carriers, carrier transport in semiconductors;
p-n junctions.
Semiconductor Materials
• The Semiconductor Industry
• Semiconductor devices such as diodes, transistors and integrated circuits
can be found everywhere in our daily lives, in Walkman, televisions,
automobiles, washing machines and computers. We have come to rely on
them and increasingly have come to expect higher performance at lower
cost.
• Personal computers clearly illustrate this trend. Anyone who wants to
replace a three to five year old computer finds that the trade-in value of
his (or her) computer is surprising low. On the bright side, one finds that
the complexity and performance of the today’s personal computers vastly
exceeds that of their old computer and that for about the same purchase
price, adjusted for inflation.
• While this economic reality reflects the massive growth of the industry, it
is hard to even imagine a similar growth in any other industry. For instance,
in the automobile industry, no one would even expect a five times faster car
with a five times larger capacity at the same price when comparing to what
was offered five years ago. Nevertheless, when it comes to personal
computers, such expectations are very realistic.
• The essential fact which has driven the successful growth of the computer
industry is that through industrial skill and technological advances one
manages to make smaller and smaller transistors. These devices deliver year
after year better performance while consuming less power and because of
their smaller size they can also be manufactured at a lower cost per device.
Introduction to Semiconductors
Objective of the lecture:
1. Define a semiconductor – no. of electrons in
outer shell, location on periodic table, most
commonly used ones etc.
2. Know the crystal structure of silicon, the cause
and result of defects.
3. Understand intrinsic and extrinsic
semiconductor behaviour, know how to affect
this behaviour through doping.
4. Explain in detail what depletion regions are and
how they are formed.
5. P-N junction
Why semiconductors?
• SEMICONDUCTORS: They are here, there, and everywhere
• Computers, palm pilots, Silicon (Si) MOSFETs, ICs, CMOS
laptops, anything “intelligent”
• Cell phones, pagers Si ICs, GaAs FETs, BJTs
• CD players AlGaAs and InGaP laser diodes, Si photodiodes
• TV remotes, mobile terminals Light emitting diodes (LEDs)
• Satellite dishes InGaAs MMICs (Monolithic Microwave
ICs)
• Fiber networks InGaAsP laser diodes, pin photodiodes
• Traffic signals, car GaN LEDs (green,
green blue)
blue
taillights InGaAsP LEDs (red,
red amber)
amber
• Air bags Si MEMs, Si ICs
• and, they are important, especially to Elec.Eng.& Computer
Sciences
Introduction
Semiconductors are materials whose electrical
properties lie between Conductors and Insulators.
Difference in conductivity
Semiconductor Materials
• Elemental semiconductors – Si and Ge (column IV of periodic
table) –compose of single species of atoms
• Compound semiconductors – combinations of atoms of column
III and column V and some atoms from column II and VI.
(combination of two atoms results in binary compounds)
• There are also three-element (ternary) compounds (GaAsP) and
four-elements (quaternary) compounds such as InGaAsP.
Semiconductor
materials
Semiconductor Materials
• The wide variety of electronic and optical properties of these
semiconductors provides the device engineer with great
flexibility in the design of electronic and opto-electronic
functions.
• Ge was widely used in the early days of semiconductor
development for transistors and diods.
• Si is now used for the majority of rectifiers, transistors and
integrated circuits.
• Compounds are widely used in high-speed devices and devices
requiring the emission or absorption of light.
Diamond lattice unit cell, showing the four nearest neighbour structure
Silicon, Si, is a group IV material having an atomic number of 14. Consequently it has 14
positively charged protons and 14 neutrons in its nucleus. It has 14 orbiting negatively
charged electrons: 2 in a full K shell; 8 in a full L shell and 4 in a half-full M sub-shell.
With a half full outer sub-shell the atom has an affinity for 4 additional electrons to try to
complete the outer sub-shell.
Both atoms essentially share the pair of electrons at the given energy level in the outer
sub-shell, with the two electrons having opposite spins. This forms a bonding
attraction between the two atoms which is not extremely strong but is nonetheless
powerful and maintains a high degree of stability in the material.
In the case of Silicon, each of the 4 outer electrons enters into a covalent
bond with a neighbouring atom.
-
- -
-
- -
- Si -
-
14 -
- -
-
-
Silicon: our primary example and
focus
Atomic no. 14 However, like all
14 electrons in three shells: 2 ) 8 ) 4 other elements it
i.e., 4 electrons in the outer "bonding" would prefer to have
shell
Silicon forms strong covalent bonds with
8 electrons in its
4 neighbors outer shell
Band theory of a solid
• A solid is formed by bringing together isolated single atoms.
• Consider the combination of two atoms. If the atoms are far apart there is
no interaction between them and the energy levels are the same for each
atom. The numbers of levels at a particular energy is simply doubled
n=3 n=3
n=2 n=2
n=1 n=1
Atom 1 Atom 2
• If the atoms are close together the electron wave functions will
overlap and the energy levels are shifted with respect to each other.
n=1
• Conductors:
– If we have used up all the
electrons available and a band is Conduction band,
still only half filled, the solid is half filled with
said to be a good conductor. The electrons
half filled band is known as the
conduction band. Valence band,
filled with
electrons
• Insulators:
– If, when we have used up all the
electrons the highest band is Empty
full and the next one is empty conduction band
Conduction
band, with some
electrons
n=2 n=2
n=1 n=1
Atom 1 Atom 2
T=0 all electrons are bound in For T> 0 thermal fluctuations can
covalent bonds break electrons free creating
electron-hole pairs
no carriers available for conduction.
Both can move throughout the lattice
and therefore conduct current.
Electrons and Holes
For T>0
some electrons in the valence band receive
enough thermal energy to be excited
across the band gap to the conduction
band.
The result is a material with some electrons
in an otherwise empty conduction band and
some unoccupied states in an otherwise
filled valence band.
An empty state in the valence band is
referred to as a hole.
Electron-hole pairs in a semiconductor.
The bottom of the conduction band
If the conduction band electron and the
denotes as Ec and the top of the valence hole are created by the excitation of a
band denotes as Ev. valence band electron to the conduction
band, they are called an electron-hole pair
(EHP).
Silicon Lattice Structure
At 0K, all Free electron
electrons
are tightly
- - - - Vacancy
shared with - Si -- Si -- Si - - Si - left by
neighbours - - - - electron.
no - - - - - Overall
current - Si -- Si -- - +- Si - -
Si - on
Sicharge
flow - - - - - - silicon is
- - - - - zero
this “hole”
- Si -- Si - - Si - - Si - - Si - must be
- - - -- - - positive
- - -
- Si -- Si -- Si - +- Si -
- - - -
-
- Si -
- Shares electrons
with 4 neighbouring
Adding heat (even to room atoms 8
temperature) allows some bonds to electrons in outer
break, and electrons can flow shell
Intrinsic Material
A perfect semiconductor crystal with no impurities or lattice defects is called an
intrinsic semiconductor.
At T=0 K – At T>0
No charge carriers Electron-hole pairs are generated
Valence band is filled with electrons
EHPs are the only charge carriers in
Conduction band is empty
intrinsic material
ri = r n0 p0 = r ni2 = gi
17
Carrier Concentration vs Temp (in Si)
1 10
16
1 10
15
1 10
14
1 10
Intrinsic Concentration (cm^-3)
13
1 10
12
1 10
11
1 10
ni 1 1010
T
9
1 10
8
1 10
7
1 10
6
1 10
5
1 10
4
1 10
3
1 10
100
150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
T
Temperature (K)
P-type material Atoms from column III (B, Al, Ga, and
In) introduce impurity levels in Ge or Si
near the valence band. These levels are
empty of electrons at 0 K. At low
temperatures, enough thermal energy is
available to excite electrons from
the valence band into the impurity level,
leaving behind holes in the valence band.
Since this type of impurity level
"accepts" electrons from the valence
band, it is called an acceptor level, and
the column III impurities are acceptor
impurities in Ge and Si. As figure
Acceptance of valence band indicates, doping with acceptor
electrons by an acceptor level, impurities can create a semiconductor
and the resulting creation of with a hole concentration p0 much
holes. greater than the conduction band
electron concentration n0 (this is p-
type material).
Donor and acceptors in covalent bonding model
In the covalent bonding model, donor and
acceptor atoms can be visualized as shown in
the Figure. An Sb atom (column V) in the Si
lattice has the four necessary valence
electrons to complete the covalent bonds
with the neighboring Si atoms, plus one extra
electron. This fifth electron does not fit into
the bonding structure of the lattice and is
therefore loosely bound to the Sb atom. A
small amount of thermal energy enables this
extra electron to overcome its coulombic
binding to the impurity atom and be donated
to the lattice as a whole. Thus it is free to
participate in current conduction. This
Donor and acceptor atoms process is a qualitative model of the
in the covalent bonding excitation of electrons out of a donor level
and into the conduction band.
model of a Si crystal.
Similarly, the column III impurity Al has only
three valence electrons to contribute to the
covalent bonding, thereby leaving one bond
incomplete. With a small amount of thermal
energy, this incomplete bond can be
transferred to other atoms as the bonding
electrons exchange positions.
Increasing conductivity by doping
- - - -
- Si -- Si - +- Si - - Si -
- - -- -
- -- - - + -
- Si -- Si - -
As Si - -+ Si - - Si -
- -- - - -- -
-- - - -- -
- AsSi - - Si - - Si - -
As Si - - Si - -
- - - - - -
- - - -
- Si - - Si - - Si - +- Si -
- - - -
-
- Si -
• Inject Arsenic into the crystal with an implant step.
- with 5 electrons in its outer shell, (one more than
• Arsenic is Group5 element
silicon).
• This introduces extra electrons into the lattice which can be released through
the application of heat and so produces and electron current
• The result here is an N-type semiconductor (n for negative current carrier)
Increasing conductivity by doping
- - - -
- Si - - Si - +- Si - - Si -
- - - + -
- - - - -
- Si - - Si - - Si - -+ Si - - Si -
- - + - - - -
- - +- - -+
- Si - - Si - - SiB - - Si - - Si
B -
- + - - - - -
- -+ - -
- Si - - Si - Si -
B - - Si - +
- - - -
-
- Si -
-
• Inject Boron into the crystal with an implant step.
• Boron is Group3 element is has 3 electrons in its outer shell (one less than silicon)
• This introduces holes into the lattice which can be made mobile by applying heat. This
gives us a hole current
• The result is a P-type semiconductor (p for positive current carrier)
Calculation of binding energy
We can calculate rather simply the approximate energy required to
excite the fifth electron of a donor atom into the conduction
band (the donor binding energy) based on the Bohr model
results:
mn*q 4
E
2 K 2 2
mn* 0.12m0
where m n* is the effective mass typical of semiconductors (
m0 = 9.11x10-31 kg is the electronic rest mass), is a
reduced Planck’s constant and
K 4 0 r
The function f(E) called the Fermi-Dirac distribution function gives the probability that
an available energy state at E will be occupied by an electron at absolute temperature T.
The quantity EF is called the Fermi level, and it represents an important quantity in the
analysis of semiconductor behavior. For an energy E = EF the occupation probability is
1 1
f ( E F ) 1 exp( E F E F ) / kT
1
(4.7)
11 2
This is the probability for electrons to occupy the Fermi level.
The Fermi – Dirac distribution function
At T=0K f(E) has rectangular shape
the denominator of the exponent is
1/(1+0)=1 when (E<Ef), exp. negative
1/(1+)-0 when (E>Ef), exp. positive
The symmetry of the distribution of empty and filled states about E F makes the Fermi level a
natural reference point in calculations of electron and hole concentrations in semiconductors.
In applying the Fermi-Dirac distribution to semiconductors, we must recall that f(E) is the
probability of occupancy of an available state at E. Thus if there is no available state at E (e.g.,
in the band gap of a semiconductor), there is no possibility of finding an electron there.
Relation between f(E) and the band structure
Electron probability
tail f(E)
Hole probability
tail [1-f(E)]
In intrinsic material the Fermi level EF must lie at the middle of the band gap.
In n-type material the distribution function f(E) must lie above its intrinsic position on the energy scale. The
energy difference (Ec – EF) gives a measure of n.
For p-type material the Fermi level lies near the valence band such that the [1-f(E)] tail below Ev is larger than the
f(E) tail above Ec. The value of (EF – Ev) indicates how strongly p-type the material is.
The distribution function has values within the band gap between Eν and Ec, but there are no energy states
available, and no electron occupancy results from f(E) in this range.
Electron and Hole Concentrations at Equilibrium
The Fermi distribution function can be used to calculate the concentrations of electrons
and holes in a semiconductor if the densities of available states in the valence and
conduction bands are known. The concentration of electrons in the conduction band is
n0 f ( E ) N ( E )dE
Ec
(4.8)
where N(E)dE is the density of states (cm-3) in the energy range dE. The subscript 0 used
for the electron and hole concentration symbols (n0, p0) indicates equilibrium conditions.
The number of electrons per unit volume in the energy range dE is the product of the density of
states and the probability of occupancy f(E). Thus the total electron concentration is the integral
over the entire conduction band. The function N(E) can be calculated by using quantum
mechanics and the Pauli exclusion principle.
N(E) is proportional to E1/2, so the density of states in the conduction band increases with
electron energy. On the other hand, the Fermi function becomes extremely small for large
energies. The result is that the product f(E)N(E) decreases rapidly above Ec, and very few
electrons occupy energy states far above the conduction band edge.
Similarly, the probability of finding an empty state (hole) in the valence band [1 - f(E)]
decreases rapidly below Ev, and most holes occupy states near the top of the valence band.
Band diagram, density of states, Fermi-Dirac distribution,
and the carrier concentrations at thermal equilibrium
Intrinsic
semiconductor
n-type
semiconductor
p-type
semiconductor
The conduction band electron concentration is simply the effective density of states at Ec
times the probability of occupancy at Ec:
n0 N c f ( E c ) (4-9)
In this expression we assume the Fermi level EF lies at least several kT below the
conduction band. Then the exponential term is large compared with unity, and the
Fermi function f(Ec) can be simplified as
1
f ( Ec ) exp ( Ec EF ) / kT (4-10)
1 exp( Ec EF ) / kT
Since kT at room temperature is only 0.026 eV, this is generally a good approximation.
For this condition the concentration of electrons in the conduction band is
n0 N c exp ( Ec E F ) / kT (4-11)
It can be shown that the effective density of states
Nc is
2mn kT 3 / 2
*
(4-12)
N c 2( 2
)
h
Values of Nc can be tabulated as a function of temperature. As Eq. (4-11) indicates, the
electron concentration increases as EF moves closer to the conduction band.
By similar arguments, the concentration of holes in the valence band is
p 0 N v [1 f ( E v )] (4-13)
where Nv is the effective density of states in the valence band.
The probability of finding an empty state at Ev, is
1
1 f ( Ev ) 1 exp ( E F Ev ) / kT (4-14)
1 exp( Ev E F ) / kT
for EF larger than Ev by several kT. From these equations, the concentration of holes
in the valence band is
p0 N v exp ( E F Ev ) / kT 4-15)
(
The effective density of states in the valence band reduced to the band edge is
2m *p kT
N v 2( 2
)3/ 2 (4-16)
h
Eq. (4-15) predicts that the hole concentration increases as EF moves closer to the
valence band.
The electron and hole concentrations predicted by Eqs. (4-11) and (4-15) are valid
whether the material is intrinsic or doped, provided thermal equilibrium is maintained.
Thus for intrinsic material, EF lies at some intrinsic level Ei near the middle of the band
gap, and the intrinsic electron and hole concentrations are (4-17)
ni N c exp ( Ec Ei ) / kT , pi N v exp ( Ei Ev ) / kT
The product of n0 and p0 at equilibrium is a constant for a particular material and
temperature, even if the doping is varied:
N c N v exp E g / kT
In Eqns. (4-18a) and (4-18b) Eg = Ec – Ev. The intrinsic electron and hole
concentrations are equal (since the carriers are created in pairs), ni = pi ; thus the
intrinsic concentration is
ni N c N v exp( E g / 2kT ) (4-19)
The constant product of electron and hole concentrations in Eq. (4-18) can be
written conveniently as
n 0 p0 ni2 (4-20)
This is an important relation, and we shall use it extensively in later calculations. The
intrinsic concentration for Si at room temperature is approximately ni = 1.5 x 1010 cm-3.
Comparing Eqs. (4-17) and (4-19), we note that the intrinsic level Ei is the middle
of the band gap (Ec - Ei= Eg/2), if the effective densities of states Nc and Nv are equal.
There is usually some difference in effective mass for electrons and holes (e.g. for
Si – mn*=0.26m0, mn*=0.39m0), however, and, therefore, Nc and Nν are slightly different
as Eqs. (4-12) and (4-16) indicate.
Another convenient way of writing Eqs. (4-11) and (4-15) is
n0 ni exp( EF Ei ) / kT (4-21)
p0 ni exp( Ei EF ) / kT (4-22)
obtained by the application of Eq. (4-17). This form of the equations indicates
directly that the electron concentration is ni, when EF is at the intrinsic level Ei, and
that n0 increases exponentially as the Fermi level moves away from Ei toward the
conduction band. Similarly, the hole concentration p0 varies from ni, to larger values
as EF moves from Ei toward the valence band. Since these equations reveal the
qualitative features of carrier concentration so directly, they are particularly
convenient to remember.
Conductivity of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors
nq
n 0 p0 ni2
Doped semiconductors n 0 p0 n 2
i
n-type p-type
n0 ni exp( E F Ei ) / kT p0 ni exp( Ei E F ) / kT
pn Junction
The interface separating the n and p
regions is referred to as the
metallurgical junction.
Density gradients still exist in the majority carrier concentrations at each edge of the space charge
region. This produce a "diffusion force" that acts the electrons and holes at the edges of the space
charge region. The electric field in the SCR produces another force on the electrons and holes
which is in the opposite direction to the diffusion force for each type of particle. In thermal equilib
rium, the diffusion force and the E-field () force exactly balance each other.
pn Junction – built-in potential barrier
No applied voltage across pn-junction
The junction is in thermal equilibrium —
the Fermi energy level is constant
throughout the entire system. The
conduction and valence band energies
must bend as we go through the space
charge region, since the relative
position of the conduction and valence
bands with respect to the Fermi energy
changes between p and n regions.
Electrons in the conduction band of the n region see a potential barrier in trying to move
into the conduction band of the p region. This potential barrier is referred to as the built-in
potential barrier and is denoted by Vbi (or V0). The built-in potential barrier maintains
equilibrium between majority carrier electrons in the n region and minority carrier electrons
in the p region, and also between majority carrier holes in the p region and minority carrier
holes in the n region. The potential Vbi maintains equilibrium, so no current is produced by
this voltage.
The intrinsic Fermi level is equidistant from the conduction band edge through the junction,
thus the built-in potential barrier can be determined as the difference between the intrinsic
Fermi levels in the p and n regions.
pn Junction An applied voltage bias V appears across the
transition region of the junction rather than in the
neutral n and p region. Of course, there will be some
voltage drop in the neutral material, if a current flows
through it. But in most p-n junction devices, the
length of each region is small compared with its area,
and the doping is usually moderate to heavy; thus
the resistance is small in each neutral region, and
only a small voltage drop can be maintained outside
the space charge (transition) region. V consider to be
positive when the external bias is positive on the p
side relative to the n side.
- - - - -
- - Si - - Si - +- Si - - Si - N-type
- - -- - +-
- - -- - - +
- - Si - - AsSi - - Si - -
+ Si - - Si - +
- - - -- - - - -
- -- - - -- - -
- AsSi - - Si - - AsSi - - Si - - Si -
- - - - - -
-
Modulators of conductivity
1020
1018
1017
n-type p-type
1016
1015
1014
1013
10-3 10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103
Electrical Resistivity (ohm-cm)
Redrawn from VLSI Fabrication Principles, Silicon and Gallium Arsenide, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
PN Junction: No electrical bias applied
Si Si B Si B Si Si Si As Si
Si B Si Si As Si As Si Si As
B Si Si B Si Si Si Si As Si
Si Si B Si Si Si Si Si As Si
P-type N-type
Mostly B & free holes Mostly As & free electrons
• Diffusion effects – The holes and electrons move from area of high
concentration to areas of low concentration.
• Holes & electrons annihilate each other to form an area depleted of free
charge. This is known as the depletion region and blocks any further flow of
charge carriers across the junction
Physics of the Depletion Region
N d ln N a l p
Where N is the dopant concentration and l the length on
the p and n type sides.
2 0 V Na 1 2 0 V Nd 1
ln lp
e Nd (Na Nd ) e Na (Na Nd )
PN Junction = Capacitor
P-type N-type
[semiconductor] [semiconductor]
D
p N
1 2 Na Nd
1 2
C V 2 0 e
2 Na Nd
PN Junction = Diode
BUT – PN is no ordinary capacitor, actually a diode
Forward Bias: Shrink depletion region, current dragged through the barrier
Reverse Bias: Grow depletion region, current finds it more and more difficult to
get through the barrier
• Little current flows
because barrier too high
- -V +V • However increasing
D + voltage further high
p N electric field
• Depletion region
eventually breaks down
reverse current