Educational Psychology

1
Chapter One: Introduction
1.1. The Meanings of Psychology

 The word psychology (Ψ) comes from the Greek

words psyche and logos which means soul and the
study, respectively.
 Hence, psychology means the study of soul.
 In general, psychology has undergone several
changes concerning its meaning with the passage of
time.
 In its first phase, it was meant as the study of soul,
 in the second phase as the study of mind,
 in the third phase as the study of consciousness and
finally as the science of behavior of modern
definition
 1.2. The Concept of Educational Psychology
1.2.1. Meanings of Educational Psychology
A branch of psychology which studies about:
 how people learn, including topics such as student outcomes,
the instructional process, individual differences in learning,
gifted learners and learning disabilities.
 the social, emotional and cognitive processes that are involved
in learning throughout the entire lifespan.
 how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of
educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the
social psychology of schools as organizations.
 the application of psychology and psychological methods to the
study of development, learning, motivation, instruction,
assessment, and related issues that influence the interaction of
teaching and learning. 4
 Cont.
 Educational Psychology is highly concerned with how
students learn and develop, often focusing on
subgroups such as gifted children and those subject to
specific disabilities.
 It informs a wide range of specialties within
educational studies, including instructional design,
educational technology, curriculum development,
organizational learning, special education and
classroom management.

5
 1.2.2. Application of Educational
Psychology in Students’ Learning
 Educational Psychology is a tool for effective teaching.
Effective teaching requires three ingredients:
 Professional Knowledge and Skills
 Commitment
 Professional Growth
1) Professional Knowledge and Skills
 Effective teachers have a good command of their subject
matter and a solid core of teaching skills.
“The art of teaching is the art of awakening the natural
curiosity of young minds.” Anatole France
French novelist and poet, 19th century
6
 Cont.
 Subject-Matter Competence
 Having a thoughtful, flexible, conceptual
understanding of subject matter is indispensable
for being an effective teacher .
 knowledge of subject matter includes a lot more
than just facts, terms, and general concepts.
 It also include knowledge about instructional
strategies, goal setting and planning, classroom
management, motivation, communication,
working with diverse students, and technology.
7
 Cont.
 Goal-Setting and Instructional Planning Skills
 Set high goals for their teaching and develop organized
plans for reaching those goals.
 Develop specific criteria for success.
 Spend considerable time in instructional planning,
organizing their lessons to maximize students’ learning.
 Classroom-Management Skills
 Establish and maintain an environment in which
learning can occur.
 Motivational Skills
 Have good strategies for helping students become self-
motivated to learn. 8
 Cont.
 Communication Skills
 Skills in speaking, listening, overcoming barriers to
verbal communication, tuning into students’ nonverbal
communication, and constructively resolving conflicts.
 Effective teachers use good communication skills when
they talk “with” rather than “to” students, parents,
administrators, and others; keep criticism at a
minimum; and have an assertive rather than aggressive,
manipulative, or passive communication style.
 Effective teachers work to improve students’
communication skills as well.

9
 Cont.
 Working Effectively with Students from
Culturally Diverse Backgrounds
 Effective teachers are knowledgeable about
students from different cultural backgrounds
and are sensitive to their needs.
 Effective teachers encourage students to have
positive personal contact with others and think
of ways to create such settings.
“It is more important to be ingenious than to be
a genius.” Pierre Elliot Trudeau Former
Canadian prime minister, 20th century
10
 Cont.
 Technological Skills
 Does not itself necessarily improve students’ ability
to learn.
 Alters the environment within which learning takes
place.
2. Commitment
 Effective teachers also have a caring concern for their
students.
 They really want to be with their students and are
dedicated to helping them learn, even if spending
extra time and resources.
 They also look for ways to help their students consider
each other’s feelings and care about each other. 11
 3. Professional Growth
 Effective teachers develop a positive identity, seek advice from
experienced teachers, maintain their own learning (Life long
learning to keep up to date about research and knowledge
about effective teaching), and build up good resources and
supports (e.g. parents, administrators, students mentors from
community, etc.).
Activity
1. Some experienced teachers say that “Forget everything you
learned in school and watch what I do instead”. Do you
agree? Why?
2. Some people think as if they know it all. What do you think
the problem of such thinking?
12
 To summarize
Characteristics of effective teachers as perceived by students
1. Have a sense humor
2. Make the class interesting
3. Have knowledge of their subjects
4. Explain things clearly
5. Spend time to help students
6. Are fair to their students
7. Treat students like adults
8. Relate well to students
9. Are considerate of students’ feelings
10. Don’t show favoritism toward students
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 1.2.3. Foundation of Educational Psychology

 Educational psychology dates back to the time of Aristotle

and Plato.
 Plato saw knowledge as an innate ability, which evolves
through experience and understanding of the world.
 Such a statement has evolved into a continuing argument
of nature versus nurture in understanding conditioning
and learning today.
 Aristotle observed the phenomenon of "association."
 His four laws of association included succession,
contiguity, similarity, and contrast.
 His studies examined recall and facilitated learning
processes. 14
 Cont.
 John Locke followed by taking issue with Plato's theory
of innate learning processes.
 In place of this theory, he introduced a new theory of
learning based on the term "tabula rasa," which means
"blank slate."
 Locke explained that learning took place primarily
through experience, and we were all born without
knowledge.
 This doctrine is known as "empiricism," the view that
knowledge is primarily built on learning and experience.
15
 Cont.
 Johann Herbart (1776–1841) is considered as the father of
educational psychology.
 He believed that learning was influenced by interest in the
subject and the teacher.
 He thought that teachers should consider the students'
existing mental sets.
 That is, what they already know when presenting new
information or material.

16
 Cont.
 Herbart came up with what are now known as the formal steps.
According to him, the five steps that teachers should use are:
1. Review material that has already been learned by the student
2. Prepare the student for new material by giving them an
overview of what they are learning next
3. Present the new material.
4. Relate the new material to the old material that has already
been learned.
5. Show how the student can apply the new material and show the
material they will learn next.

17
 Cont.
 William James (1842–1910) the pioneering American
psychologist; commented that psychology is a science, and
teaching is an art; and sciences never generate arts directly
out of themselves.
 In his famous series of lectures Talks to Teachers on
Psychology, published in 1899 and now regarded as the
first educational psychology textbook.

18
 Cont.
 He states that teachers should "train the pupil to
behavior”; so that he/she fits into the social and
physical world.
 Teachers should also realize the importance of habit
and instinct.
 They should present information that is clear and
interesting and relate this new information and
material to things the student already knows about.
 He also addresses important issues such as attention,
memory, and association of ideas.
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 Cont.
 Alfred Binet published Mental Fatigue in 1898, in which
he attempted to apply the experimental method to
educational psychology.
 In this experimental method he advocated for two types of
experiments, experiments done in the lab and experiments
done in the classroom.
 Binet strongly supported special education programs
because he believed that "abnormality" could be cured.
 The Binet-Simon test was the first intelligence test and was
the first to distinguish between "normal children" and
those with developmental disabilities.
20
 Cont.
 Binet believed that it is important to study individual
differences between age groups and children of the
same age.
 He also believed that it is important for teachers to
take into account individual students strengths and
also the needs of the classroom as a whole when
teaching and creating a good learning environment.
 He also believed that it is important to train teachers
in observation so that they would be able to see
individual differences among children and adjust the
curriculum to the students. 21
 Cont.
 John Dewey (1859–1952) had a major influence on the
development of progressive education in the United States.
 He believed that the classroom should prepare children to be
good citizens and facilitate creative intelligence.
 He thought that education should be student-oriented, not
subject-oriented.
 He stated that students learn by doing.
 In his 1910 book How We Think, he emphasizes that material
should be provided in a way that is stimulating and interesting
to the student since it encourages original thought and problem
solving.
 He also stated that material should be relative to the student's
own experience. 22
 Cont.
 Jean Piaget (1896–1980), who developed the theory
of cognitive development, believed that learning was
constrained to the child's cognitive development.
 Piaget influenced educational psychology because he was
the first to believe that cognitive development was
important and something that should be paid attention to
in education.
 Jerome Bruner is notable for integrating Piaget's cognitive
approaches into educational psychology.
 He advocated for discovery learning where teachers create
a problem solving environment that allows the student to
question, explore and experiment. 23
 Cont.
 In his book The Process of Education Bruner stated that
the structure of the material and the cognitive abilities of
the person are important in learning.
 He emphasized the importance of the subject matter.
 He also believed that how the subject was structured was
important for the student's understanding of the subject
and it is the goal of the teacher to structure the subject in
a way that was easy for the student to understand.
 Benjamin Bloom (1913–1999) who was more recent
educational psychologist developed an important
taxonomy of educational objectives designed to categorize,
and describe different educational objectives. 24
 Cont.
 Bloom believed in communicating clear learning goals
and promoting an active student.
 He thought that teachers should provide feedback to
the students on their strengths and weaknesses.
 In conclusion, from the 1960s to present day,
educational psychology has switched from a
behaviorist perspective to a more cognitive based
perspective because of the influence and development
of cognitive psychology.

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 UNIT 2

Learner Developmental Characteristics

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 BASIC CONCEPTS, PRINCIPLES AND
THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

Meaning of Terms
Growth
• is defined as indicative of increase in body dimensions-
height and weight.
• is generally restricted to quantitative changes. i.e., increase
in size & structure
• is the result of metabolic processes in which proteins are
broken down and used to make new cells.
• Is internal,
• Structural,
• Physiological, 27
 Maturation

• It is the unfolding of characteristics potentially

present in the individual that come from the
individual’s genetic endowment.
• In other words, maturation represents the
readiness or ripening of a certain growing body
to start its functions. E.g. the ripening of sex
organs for reproduction.
• It is the same way for children of all cultures.

28
 Learning

• It is a relatively permanent change in behavior caused by

interaction with the environment or experience
• Learning implies making practice and experimentation or
performing activities using the maturing body.
• When the practices, experimentations or performances are
repeated time and over again, they lead to changes. When a number
of these specific changes are integrated, they lead to development.
• Through learning, individuals acquire competence in using their
hereditary resources. They must, however, have opportunities to
learn.
• But if deprived of opportunities for practice and experimentation
or systematic training, individuals will not develop their hereditary
potential. 29
 Development

• It is the orderly set of changes that occur over time

as individual moves from conception to death.
• It is a lifelong process.
• It is the emerging and expanding of capacities of
the individual to provide greater facility in
functioning such as development of motor ability
from uncertain step to proficiency in games.
• It is best understood as the result of the interaction
of maturation and learning.
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 Activity
What do you think is then the relationship of growth,
maturation, learning and development?

• There is evidence that growth leads to

maturation and maturation set influences to
what a person can learn and learning in turn
leads to development.
• From this point of view, development is
therefore a broad concept that encompasses
growth, maturation and learning.

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 2.2. Dimensions of Human Development

• Development is an overall change in behavior

resulting from the interaction of different
changes rather than just one kind of change; on
the other hand, it is manifested through different
kinds of changes rather than through one type of
change.

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 Activity
What then those different dimensions of
developmental changes?

33
• To simplify the matter let us focus on the three arbitrarily
separated aspects of development: the physical, including
changes in sensory capacities, body changes and motor
skills; the cognitive including learning, language, memory
and thought; and the psychosocial, including emotions,
personality and relationship with other people.
• The division of human development in to three domains
makes it easier to study, but we must remember that very
few factors belong exclusively to one aspect or another.
• Development is not piecemeal but holistic. Each aspect of
development is related to all three aspects.
34
 Questions and Controversies about
Human Nature
• From the above discussion you may have noted that
development in general is guided by innate
biological forces ( for that matter growth and
maturation) as well as by the particular experiences
a person has ( for that matter environment).
• The relative importance of these factors is a topic of
debate, called the nature-nurture controversy.
• Whether development is continuous and smooth, or
discontinuous and stage like, is also controversial.
35
 The Issue of Nature and
Nurture
• Once again you may have noted from the above discussion
that development is the result of the interaction of nature
(heredity) and nurture (environment).
• Development occurs when the developing person interacts
more and more with the environment using his/her changing
body.
• We may use the analogy of a growing plant to elaborate this
point.
• A plant grows from the seed that is planted on a plot of land.
• The growing plant represents development; the seed
represents heredity whereas the plot of land represents the
environment. 36
 Activity
 Define the terms heredity and environment,
and, with the help of examples explain how each
contributes to human development.

37
 Cont.

• There is no doubt that development is the result

of heredity (nature) and environment (nurture).
• However, as its most extreme, the nature-
nurture debate asked which of the two, heredity
or environment, was more responsible for
development.
• The debate used to take two extreme positions-
one group favoring environment and another
group favoring heredity. 38
 Activity

• Which view do you personally support?

Why?

39
 Cont.

• The present day psychologists do not think the

question regarding the relative importance of
factors is useful, for one could not exist without
the other.
• Both heredity and environment are absolutely
necessary for the person to exist; therefore,
both must exert an influence on the person.

40
 Activity

• Do you think nature and nurture are

equally important in all aspects of
development?

41
• We do not assume that each of the two factors of
development plays an equal role in all aspects of
development.
• In phylogenetic behaviors- behaviors common to the
race- such as creeping, crawling, sitting and walking can
best be explained by the process of maturation that is
guided by our genetic blueprint- heredity.
• By contrast, in ontogenetic behavior- behavior specific
to the individual- such as swimming, ball throwing, or
writing are best explained by examining the influence of
the environment the individual encountered. 42
 The Issue of Continuity and
Discontinuity

• How would you describe human growth?

Would you say we gradually grow older and
more mature, the way a seedling becomes a
tree? Or do you think we undergo
steadily/gradual changes, like a caterpillar
becoming a butterfly? Give your reasons
please.
• These questions reflect the issue of continuity
and discontinuity.
43
• Developmental psychologists have debated on the question of
continuity and discontinuity.
• Those who support continuity believe there is a continual
progression from the beginning of life to the end.
• Accomplishments that seem abrupt, such as a body’s first step
can be viewed as the final event in weeks of practice and growth.
• In the same way learning to talk or read, or the entering of
adolescence or adulthood, can be seen as a gradual process
rather than an abrupt change.
• Psychologists, who argue in favor of discontinuity of
development, think that growth occurs in identifiable stages,
with distinct abilities and problems typical of each stage.
44
• This debate is ongoing and some of the
developmental psychologists will argue for a
stage like discontinuity, while others will argue
that development is best seen in terms of
continuity.
• The present day psychologists recognize the
merit of both sides of these controversies.
• The fact is that we can find both continuity and
discontinuity in development.
45
 2.4. Theories of Development and Their
Educational Implications

2.4.1. Theories of Cognitive and Language

Development
Cognitive development refers to the development of the
intellectual or mental abilities and capabilities which help an
individual to adjust his/her behavior to the ever challenging
environmental conditions.
2.4.1.1. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
– For Piaget intelligence is adaptive. i.e., usable in different
conditions.
– Adaptation takes place through two related processes:
assimilation and accommodation. 46
 –

 Assimilation is the process by which an

individual fits new information into his/her
present way of understanding, as when he/she act
on a new object in a way that is similar to
previous action on other object.
Example: A young kid may identify all flying objects as “airplane”
 Accommodation is the process by which cognitive structures
are altered to fit new experiences.
Example: The kid has to be informed that not all flying
objects are airplanes. In this case accommodation would
involve the modification of airplane scheme. 47
• Equilibrium occurs when a child's schemas can deal with
most new information through assimilation.
• However, an unpleasant state of disequilibrium occurs when
new information cannot be fitted into existing schemas
(assimilation).
• Equilibration is the force which drives the learning process
as we do not like to be frustrated and will seek to restore
balance by mastering the new challenge (accommodation).
• Once the new information is acquired the process of
assimilation with the new schema will continue until the next
time we need to make an adjustment to it. 48
49
 Basic Assumption of Piaget’s Theory

• Changes occur in four stages:

o Sensory motor Stage,
o Preoperational Stage,
o Concrete Operational Stage, and
o Formal Operational Stage.
• Every individual passes the same stages in the same
movement(stages are invariant)
• All individuals in all parts of the world follow the same
movement(stages are universal)
• The highest level of cognitive development is attained in
adolescence. 50
 1. Sensory motor Stage (Birth-2 years)

• It is the first stage of cognitive development

• The child discovers the world using the senses and motor
activities.
• The child experiences everything directly through his/her
senses and through feedback from motor activities.
• In the world of the child, an object exists when it is physically
present.
• The child develops object permanence (the understanding
that objects and people do not disappear merely because they
are out of sight) when he/she is between six and eight months
of old. The child leaves the sensory motor stage when object
permanence becomes fully developed. 51
 2. Preoperational stage (2 to 7 years)

• During this stage, the use of symbolic thought expands

rapidly especially the use of language.
• Children’s rapidly increasing vocabularies enable them
to represent and think about people, objects, events, and
feelings.
• They gain the ability to represent mentally objects that
are not present. They also begin to draw people, animals,
and objects.
• In the beginning, their drawings are fanciful. However,
toward the end of the stage, their drawings become more
realistic, neat, and precise. 52
• Pre-operational children begin to realize that an event has a cause.
• In addition, they are able to group objects, people, and events into
meaningful categories such as big or small and boy or girl.
• Furthermore, they can count and deal with quantities. As they
grow older, they become more able to imagine how others might
feel.

Cognitive limitations of pre-operational stage

 Egocentrism - is the tendency to see the world of others from their
own viewpoints. They assume that everyone else share their feelings,
reactions, and perspectives. Example: A boy assumes that all people
enjoy watching football as he does. 53
• Animism-This is the tendency to attribute life to objects that are not
alive.- Example: A child says, “My teddy bear wants a cup of milk too”
 Irreversibility: refers to the failure to understand that certain
processes can be undone or reversed. Example: A young child
might recognize that 3 + 2 = 5, but not understand that the reverse
5 – 2 = 3, is true.
 Lack of conservation- Conservation is the principle that some
characteristics of an object stay the same even though the object
changes in appearance.
-Example: A preoperational child cannot understand that the
amount of liquid stays the same regardless of the container’s
shape (Refer table 1).
54
Type of Before transformation After transformation
conservation

Shape

The balls have the The sausage shape has

same amount of clay. more amount of clay.

Length

Both straws have The one on top (or

the same length. bottom) is longer.
55
 Before transformation After transformation

Liquid

The containers have the same The tall container has

amount of liquid more amount of liquid.

Number

Both rows have the same The longer row has more
number of candies. number of candies. 56
 3. Concrete operational stage (7 to 12 years)

• During the concrete operational stage, children develop

the ability to think in a more logical manner.
• They are less egocentric than before and can take multiple
aspects of a situation into account.
• At this stage, children can do mentally what they
previously could do only physically and they can reverse
concrete operations.
• Although the concrete operational thinkers make
important advances in logical capabilities, their thinking is
still limited to real situations in here and now.
• Put in another way, they have difficulty in understanding57
 4. Formal operational stage (12 years to adulthood)

• This stage begins when children develop the

capacity of thinking that is abstract, systematic,
and hypothetical.
• These capabilities allow students to make abstract
reasoning, sophisticated moral judgments, and plan
more realistically for the future.
• They can understand historical time, learn algebra
and calculus, imagine possibilities, form and test
hypotheses (hypothetical-deductive reasoning in
Piaget’s term) and can use inductive reasoning. 58
 Applying Piaget’s Theory

• An important implication of Piaget's theory is

adaptation of instruction to the learner's
developmental level.
• The content of instruction needs to be consistent
with the developmental level of the learner.
• The teacher's role is to facilitate learning by
providing a variety of experiences.
• "Discovery learning" provides opportunities for
learners to explore and experiment, thereby
encouraging new understandings. 59
 Additional suggestions include:

• Provide hands-on experience with physical objects,

particularly at the elementary level.
• When students show signs of egocentric thought, express
confusion or explain that others think differently.
• Ask students to explain their reasoning and challenge illogical
explanations.
• Use familiar examples to facilitate learning more complex
ideas, such as story problems in math.
• Relate abstract and hypothetical ideas to concrete objects
and/or observable events.
• Provide opportunities to discuss social, political, and cultural
issues.
60
 2.4.1.2. Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development

• Because Piaget concentrated on the individual child, he

failed to consider the effect that the social setting may
have on cognitive development.
• The way that adults use language and gestures and the
child's experience through social interactions are very
influential on cognitive development for Vygotsky.
• His theory is sometimes referred to as the socio-cultural
perspective because of its emphasis on the impact of
society and culture on cognitive development.
61
 The major theme of Vygotsky’s theoretical
framework is that social interaction plays a
fundamental role in the development of
cognition.
 For Vygotsky, every function in the child’s
cultural development appears twice: first, on the
social level, and later, on the individual level;
 first, between people (inter-psychological) and
then inside the child (intra-psychological).
 All the higher functions originate as actual
relationships between individuals 62
 Vygotsky’s Main Ideas and Assumptions

• Social interaction and culture has a dramatic impact on

cognitive development.
• Cognitive processes (language, thought, reasoning) develop
through social interaction.
• Learning is largely mediated by social interaction of
students and "More Knowledgeable Others" (e.g. teachers,
parents, coaches, peers, experts, etc.)
• Children can perform more challenging tasks when assisted.
 Actual developmental level vs. level of potential
development
• Play allows children to stretch themselves cognitively.
63
 Cont.

• Challenging tasks promote maximum cognitive growth.

Zone of proximal development (ZPD)

• The range of tasks that a child can perform with the help and
guidance of others but cannot yet perform independently.
• ZPD is a level of development attained when children engage
in social behavior.
• What is the zone of proximal development today will be the
actual development level tomorrow – that is, what a child can
do with assistance toady she will be able to do by herself
tomorrow
• In this case “proximal” means what comes next. 64
65
  The idea is that a child is only able to take the
next step in their cognitive development if
another person – typically an adult – supports
and prompts them to do so.
 The range of skill that can be developed with
adult guidance or peer collaboration exceeds
what can be attained alone.
 This sort of assistance has been called
scaffolding.
 An important aspect of scaffolding is that there
is a gradual withdrawal of support as the
child’s knowledge and confidence increase.
66
 Applying Vygotsky’s Theory

• Encourage students to talk themselves through difficult

tasks
• Provide cognitive tools that students can use to make
difficult tasks easier
• Present some tasks that students can perform
successfully only with assistance
• Provide sufficient scaffolding to enable students to
attempt to perform challenging tasks
• Have students work in small groups on complex tasks
• Provide opportunities to engage in adult-like activities
• Give young children time to practice adult roles and
behaviors through play
67
 Differences between Piaget and Vygotsky

Source of cognitive development

• Piaget believed that the most important source of
cognition is the children themselves. Piaget
emphasised the role of an inbuilt (biological)
tendency to adapt to the environment, by a process
of self-discovery and play.
• Vygotsky emphasised the role of culture and
experience. Vygotsky believed that what drives
cognitive development is social interaction – a
child’s experience with other people. Culture
shapes cognition. 68
 Language and Thought

 For Piaget, language is a product of cognitive

development. In other words, cognitive
development (IV) determines language use (DV).
 Vygotsky believed that language develops from
social interactions, for communication purposes.
Later language ability becomes internalised as
thought and “inner speech”. Thought is the result
of language.
 In other words, social interactions (IV) determines
language use (DV). 69
 Stage Theory

 Piaget emphasised universal cognitive change.

 Vygotsky’s theory can be applied to all ages (not a
stage theory) and emphasised individual
development.
Discovery Learning (Education)
 Piaget advocated for discovery learning with little
teacher intervention.
 Vygotsky promoted guided discovery in the
classroom 70
 2.4.2. Theories of Personality Development
2.4.2.1. Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial
Development
• Erik Erikson highlighted the importance of relationship
with others in the formation of one’s own identity.
• Erikson believed that personality develops through eight
stages or critical periods of life.
• He also contended that at each stage of life, an individual
is confronted by a crisis.
• Erikson assume the personality develops in accordance to
one’s ability to interact with the environment and to
resolve the crises experienced.
• The manner in which the crises are resolved will have a
lasting effect on the person’s view of him or herself and
the surrounding world. 71
 Stage 1: Trust versus Mistrust (birth-1 year)

• The first psychological challenge faced by a child

involves developing a sense of trust in others.
• The sense of trust develops if s/he is predictably
cared for when s/he cries and is warmly treated by
her/his primary caregivers.
• If an infant, instead, is not being fed, diapered, or
comforted when necessary, Erikson believed this
infant would develop basic mistrust of others,
which would lead to fear and suspicion. 72
 Stage-2 : Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt
(1-3 yrs)

• At ages from 1 to 3, children want to do things on their

own or act autonomously.
• Yet this need to become autonomous must be balanced
by the reality of safety issues.
• For instance, while Erikson thought it was healthy to
allow the two-year-olds to explore the streets alone, this
exploration must be done in a constraint way such that
the child is not hit by a car.
• Therefore, Erikson called for a delicate interplay
between freedom and control (Restraint). 73
 Stage 3 : Initiative versus Guilt (3-6 years)
• Erikson contends that children when face with new
challenges, will want to explore and investigate.

• He termed this the development of a sense of initiative,

whereby children begin to ask many questions about the
world.
• The ever-present questions of “why” and “what” seem to
engulf a child at this stage as do the inquisitive behaviors
that often accompany taking initiative.
• For instance, children may ask question about and want
to help with work in the kitchen.
• In situations in which a child is discouraged from taking
the initiative, Erikson believed that the child would
develop a sense of guilt regarding her natural tendency to
explore and investigate. 74
 Stage 4 : Industry versus Inferiority
(6-12 years)

• The major psychological task in the fourth stage is the development of

competence or industry.
• The children try to succeed in learning and gain recognition for
producing things or good result.
• In elementary school years, children are faced with the challenges of
producing good academic work related to reading, writing, and
mathematical skills.
• Children also face the challenges to be competent in hobby, playing
sports, maintaining a positive relationship with teachers, and
developing friendship.
• Children who leave the elementary years without this sense of industry,
may feel they are failure at everything.
• So it is the responsibility of parents and teachers to help them to
75
become academically and socially competence.
 Stage-5 : Identity vs Role Confusion
(12-18 years)

• This stage is for the secondary and post-secondary school

students.
• Adolescents struggle to resolve the questions of “Who am I?”
and “Who will I become”.
• They move increasingly from their parents to peers as a point
of reference.
• They need to understand how they are both alike and at the
same time uniquely different from everyone else.
• Adolescents experience issues of personal fable, imaginary
audience, sexual identity, and the like.

76
 • Personal fable: is the self-generated, often
romanticized story of one’s personal destiny. The
adolescent may develop an image of a great hero, or
the great reformer of the world’s evils.
• The notion that they are invincible /invulnerable. This
notion may lead to risk taking behavior.
• Imagery audience: the adolescent assumes that others
are focused upon and concerned about the same issues.
• The adolescents also strive to find their own
personalities. They need a figure or model to identify
with.
• Adolescents also face the issues of sexual identity that
is the adolescent searches for comfortable expressions of
sexuality through friendship and dating.
77
 Stage 6 : Intimacy versus Isolation
(18-35 years)

• The major psychosocial crisis in Erikson’s six stage is the

development of a true and intimate heterosexual relationship.
Erikson contends that in this stage individuals should be able
to care for others without losing their self-identity.
• Erikson believes individual who never know this intimacy
will develop a sense of isolation and tend to avoid
relationships with others and make commitments.
• This six stages crises faced mostly by college and university
students. One of the ways for the adolescents to face this
crisis is to be active in sports, clubs and participate in
community social works.
78
 Stage 7 : Generativity versus Stagnation (35-65)
• The major concern of the people at this age is on the caring and
well-being of the next generation.

• Most parents focus their energy and time on bringing up their

children to be successful.
• If a sense of generativity is not present, the individual
experiences stagnation and become overly self-preoccupied.
Stage 8 : Integrity versus Despair (Over 65 years)
• In this last stage, individuals who have managed to adapt to the
triumphs/ successes and tragedies of life are able to review their
lives with a sense of satisfaction and acceptance which Erikson
thought to be a prerequisite to achieving a sense of integrity at
the end’s of one’s life.
• Those who failed become absorbed with despairing over missed
opportunities, age and failure. 79
 Educational Implications of Erikson’s Theory

• Education depends upon trusting one’s

environment, including others from whom we can
learn, to pass on accurate and usable information
and which we can use to learn and problem solve.
• Education depends upon trusting ourselves to be
able to take the initiative to incorporate, synthesize,
integrate, develop and employ what we learn.
• Initiative vs. Guilt - Give children the opportunity
to make choices and act upon those choices.
80
 . Break instruction and activities down into small
steps. This makes it easier for children to succeed
and encourages them to take risks.
.

• Accept mistakes that result from students attempting

activities on their own.
• Industry vs. Inferiority - Allow students the opportunity to
set realistic goals.
• Have them create academic and personal goals for each
quarter and revisit those goals every few weeks to monitor
their own progress.
• Assign jobs to the students.
• Teach children study skills.
• Provide regular feedback to students, particularly those
who seem discouraged. 81
  Identity vs. Role Confusion - Provide a variety
of positive role models for students.
 Provide models of exemplary work so students
know what an excellent project looks like and
can compare their own work to the model.
• Provide opportunities for students to bring their own
interests into projects and assessments, as they may
feel these interests are vital parts of their identities.
• Explain the long-term consequences of misbehavior
or poor performance so students will know how it
affects themselves and others.
• Encourage and support student interests.

82
 2.4.2.2. Freud’s Views and Stages of
Psychosexual Development

• The psychosexual theory of human development has been

founded by Sigmund Freud.
• Freud has theorized that powerful unconscious biological
drives, mostly sexual and aggression motivate human
behavior and that these natural urges put people into
conflict with the constraints of society, producing anxiety.
• According to Freud, a child passes through five major
stages of psychosexual development.
• The first three stages: oral, anal and phallic involve
physical satisfaction and are centered on the erogenous
zones (sexually sensitive areas). 83
 1. The Oral Stage (birth to approximately
(1 year)

• The focus of pleasure is mouth.

• The child’s love object is his/her mother’s breast which
s/he sucks to satisfy his/her hunger.
• The treatment of the mother determines later personality.
• Success at this stage means the infant develops in to an
adult with normal, flexible and desirable personality
characteristics.
• Failure at this stage leads to oral fixation because of over
gratification and under gratification.
Over gratification later personality
Overindulgence at this stage  optimism, admiration,
gullibility
84
Under gratification later personality
Deprivation at this stage  pessimism, dependency,
suspiciousness, envy (verbal
biting, hostile)
2. The Anal Stage (approximately 1 - 3 years)
• The focus of pleasure shifts from mouth to the anus.
• The child gains the greatest satisfaction from exercising
control over the anus during elimination (removal) and
retention (withholding).
later personality
Over gratification-- dirtiness, messiness, over generosity
Under gratification-- meticulousness, orderliness,
85
 3. Phallic Stage (approximately 3-6 years)

The focus of pleasure shifts from anus to the immature sexual

organs.
Oedipus complex- the boy is sexually attracted to his mother and
gets rid to his father. Castration anxiety - the boy fears his
father by assuming that if the father knows his son’s feeling he
may remove the source of the problem (the son’s penis).
Electra complex- the girl is sexually attracted to her father and
gets rid to her mother. Penis envy - the girl become hostile
towards her mother because the girl says my mother cheated my
penis.
- Repression of feelings towards opposite sex and identification of
86
the same sex avoids these anxieties.
 4. Latency Stage (approximately 6 - 11 years)

• It is the stage in which the sexual drive becomes

dormant (inactive, sleep) until the onset of puberty.
• The child engages himself in learning skills and in the
development of values.

5. Genital Stage (12+ years)

• The focus of pleasure shifts to the member of opposite
sex.
• The young person seeks sexual stimulation and sexual
satisfaction. 87
 Educational Implications of Freud’s Theory

 The conflicts or crises must be solved in order to normally proceed to

the next level of development, and to avoid fixation or
maladjustment.
 You role as teachers therefore, is to assist your students solve their
inner conflicts.
 You can actually help if you give them ample attention in their
certain needs.
 Have insight into the unconscious feelings and drives that motivate
some student behavior.
 Among adolescent students, be more responsible and teach them to
be sexually responsible by explaining to them the sexual changes
they are going through, and the consequences of their actions.
 Teach them to be more critical and reflective to clarify their inner
88
 2.4.3. Theories of Moral Development
 Morality is a set of internalized principles or ideas that
help the individual to distinguish right from wrong act
on this distinction.
• Practically, every day we have to make judgments about
“right” and “wrong” when we do this we are reasoning
about moral issues.
• The phrase moral development is concerned with the
ability to understand and act upon codes of conduct
including everything from the specific rules of a game to
universal ethics that should govern all human behavior.
• Morality is indissolubly (inseparably) linked with the
social system, and it has reference to social relationship
and social process. 89
 2.4.3.1. Piaget's Theory of Moral Development

 Piaget was principally interested not in what children do

(i.e., in whether they break rules or not) but in what they
think.
 In other words he was interested in children’s moral
reasoning.
 Piaget was interested in three main aspects of children’s
understanding of moral issues:
1) Children’s understanding of rules. Where do rules come
from? Can rules be changed? Who makes rules?
2) Children’s understanding of moral responsibility. Who is to
blame for “bad” things? Is it the outcome of behavior that
makes an action “bad”? Is there a difference between 90
 3) Children’s understanding of justice.
 Should the punishment fit the crime? Are the guilty
always punished?

 Piaget found that children’s ideas regarding rules,

moral judgments and punishment tended to change
as they got older.
 In other words just as there were stages to children’s
cognitive development so there were also universal
stages to their moral development.
 Piaget suggested two main types of moral thinking:
• Heteronomous morality (moral realism)
• Autonomous morality (moral relativism)
91
 I. Heteronomous Morality (Younger
Children)

 Morality imposed from the outside.

 Children regard morality as obeying other people's
rules and laws (parents, teachers, God), which
cannot be changed.
 Rules are seen as inflexible requirements (moral
realism)
 Badness is judged in terms of the consequences of
actions, regardless on the intentions or reasons for
that behavior.
 Punishment is seen as the automatic consequence 92of
 II. Autonomous Morality (Older Children)

 The stage of autonomous morality is also known as moral

relativism – morality based on your own rules.
 Children recognize there is no absolute right or wrong and
that morality depends on intentions not consequences.
 Children now understand that rules do not come from some
mystical “divine-like” source.
 People make rules and people can change them
 Based on relations of cooperation among equals
 Rules are viewed as products of mutual agreement (rational
moral attitudes)
 Punishment should be affected by human intention 93
 2.4.3.2. Kohlberg’s theory of moral development

 Kohlberg views the development of morality in terms of moral

reasoning by telling a set of hypothetical stories that pose ethical
dilemmas, the most famous of these is the story of Heinz:
In Europe, a woman was near death from cancer. One drug might save
her a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently
discovered. The druggist was charging $ 2000, ten times what the drug
cost him to make. The sick woman’s husband, Heinz, went to everyone
he knew to borrow the money, but he could get together only about half
of what the drug cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and
asked him to sell the drug for less money or to let him pay later. But the
druggist said, “No.” The husband got desperate and broke into the
man’s store to steal the drug for his wife. Should the husband have done
that? Why or why not? 94
 • Kohlberg examined the responses to such dilemmas and
concluded that moral development occurs in three levels
with two stages at each level.

Level One: - Pre-Conventional Morality

• Children make decisions on the basis of reward and punishment
and the satisfaction of their own needs.
• Emphasize on avoiding punishment and getting rewards.
Stage 1:- Punishment and Obedience Orientation
• The child avoids breaking rules because it might lead to
punishment.
• This child shows complete respect to rules.
• The interests of others are not considered.
• The most important value at this stage is obedience to authority in
order to avoid punishment. 95
 Stage 2:- Instrumental Relativist Orientation
• The right action consists of behavior that satisfies
child’s own needs and only sometimes the needs of
others.
• The reason to be nice to others is so they will be nice
to him/her. In other words, you scratch my back and
I will scratch yours.
Level Two:-Conventional Morality
• Maintaining the expectation of the child’s family,
group, or nation is perceived as valuable in its own
right, regardless of consequences.
• Children emphasize on social rules and conformity as
the most important factor.
• This level has two stages: 96
 Stage 3:-Interpersonal Concordance or Good
Boy (Nice Girl) Orientation

• The child begins to like the good will of others and tries to
please others to obtain their approval: good boy/nice girl.
• Good moral behaviors are those please (satisfy) others.
• Emphasis on gaining approval from others by being nice.
Stage 4:- Law and Order Orientation
• A child is oriented toward authority and toward
maintaining the social order.
• The emphasis is on doing one’s duty and showing respect for
authority.
• Right behavior means obeying the laws set down by those in
power, being a dutiful citizen. 97
 Level Three: - Post Conventional Morality
 At this level, an individual makes a clear effort to
define moral values and principles that have validity
and application apart from the authority of the
groups/persons holding these principles, and apart
from the individual’s own identification with these
groups.
Stage 5: Social Contract, Legalistic Orientation
• In stage five, correct behavior is defined in terms of
individual rights and the consensus of society.
• The rules of society exist for the benefit of all, and are
established by mutual agreement.
• If the rules become destructive, or if one party doesn’t
live up to agreement, the contract is no longer
98
binding/necessary.
 Stage 6:- Universal Ethical Principle
Orientation

• In this highest stage, the correct behavior is defined as a

decision of conscience- (the sense of what is right and
wrong that governs somebody’s thought and actions,
urging him/her to do right rather than wrong) in
accordance with self-chosen ethical principles that are
logical, universal, and consistent.
• At this stage, the individual keeps not only the norms of
society in mind but also the universal moral principles.
• An individual may be prepared to sacrifice his/her all,
including life for upholding (continuation) of these
principles. 99
 2.4.3.3. Carol Gilligan’s Theory of Moral
Development

• Kohlberg’s population for his research was primarily male.

• Gilligan’s theory was based on two observational studies:

 Study One: 25 college students

 Study Two: 29 women considering abortion
• Carol Gilligan suggested that a morality of care can serve in
the place of the morality of justice and rights advocated by
Kohlberg.
• Whereas boys’ moral reasoning revolves primarily around
issues of justice, girls are more concerned about issues of
caring and responsibility for others. 100
  Orientations arise form rational experiences of inequality and
attachment.
 Girls attached to and identify with mothers
 Boys attached to mothers and identify with fathers

• Believes that responsibility orientation is of a higher

order than justice rights orientation.
• Gilligan produces her own stage theory of moral
development for women.
• Like Kohlberg's, it has three major divisions: pre-
conventional, conventional, and post conventional
stage.
• But for Gilligan, the transitions between the stages
are fueled by changes in the sense of self rather than
in changes in cognitive capability. 101
 Level One: Complete concern for self.
 Goal is individual survival
 Young girls start out with a selfish orientation

Transitional Phase: From self to care and concern for

others. Transition is from selfishness to responsibility
to others.
Level Two: Primary interest in the care of others (to
gain their acceptance). Women learn that it is wrong
to act in their own interests.
Transitional Phase: awareness of self relative to
developing relationships with others: responsibility
toward their care and needs. Transition to truth that
she is a person too. 102
 Level Three: Nonviolence and universal caring
 Do not hurt others or self.
 Learn that it is just as wrong to ignore their own
interests as it is to ignore others’ interests.
 Learn this through connecting with others.

2.5. Psychology of Adolescence

• The beginning of adolescence is best defined as biological
age i.e., The physical changes of puberty
• The conclusion of adolescence is best defined as social
age ( the social bhrs. and roles that regarded as adult)

2.5.1. Characteristics of Adolescence

1. Adolescence is a transitional period - it is a period
from late childhood to adulthood.
103
 2. Adolescence is a period of changes-heightened
emotionality, sexual maturity, changes in interest, changes in
value, & desire for independence.

3. Adolescence is a period of search for identity

In the later years, they begin to desire identity and no longer try to satisfy
the needs of peers in every aspect.
4. Adolescence is a dreaded/ troublesome age
Adults hold stereotype towards adolescence as destructive and anti social
stage.
5. Adolescence is a time of unrealism
They see themselves as they would like to be rather than as they are.
Unrealistic aspirations leading adolescents to heightened emotionality.
6. Adolescence is the threshold/onset of adulthood
They begin to concentrate on behavior that is associated with adult
104
statuses.
 2.5.2. Developmental tasks in adolescence

 Achieving new and more mature relations with age mate of

both sexes.
 Achieving a masculine or feminine social roles.
 Accepting one’s physique and using one’s body effectively.
 Achieving emotional independence of parents and other adults.
 Preparing for marriage and family life.
 Preparing for an economic career.
 Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to
behavior; developing an ideology.
 Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior.
105
 Chapter Three: Individual
Difference in Learning

3.1. The Meaning and Concept of Individual

Differences
1. Do you think all individuals are equal?
2. Why and/or Why not? Explain your response with
justification.
3. How do you describe individual differences?
 In the words of Charles E. Skinner, “Today we think of
individual differences as including any measurable aspect
of the total personality.”
106
 Cont.
I’ll tell you this: There are some people, and then there are others.
(Anna Harris)
 Distinction between differences among individuals and differences among
groups of students
Individual differences are qualities that are unique; just one person has them
at a time. Variation in hair color, for example, is an individual difference;
even though some people have nearly the same hair color, no two people are
exactly the same.
Group differences are qualities shared by members of an identifiable group or
community, but not shared by everyone in society. An example is gender role:
for better or for worse, one portion of society (the males) is perceived
differently and expected to behave a bit differently than another portion of
society (the females). 107
 3.2. Individual Difference in Learning and

Learning Factors

 One manifestation of the difference among students is

that they seldom learn at the same rate.
 Differences in rates of learning are based on
differences in intelligence, background experience,
interest, desire to learn, and countless psychological,
emotional, and physical factors.

108
 3.3. Individual styles of Learning
and Thinking
 All people have their own preferred ways of learning.
 These differences are called learning styles.
1. Learning style is an individual's natural or habitual pattern
of acquiring and processing information in learning
situations.
 A core concept is that individuals differ in how they learn.
 Because of individual learning styles, one student may like to
make diagrams to help remember a reading assignment,
whereas another student may prefer to write a sketchy outline
instead. Yet in many cases, the students could in principle
reverse the strategies and still learn the material.
109
 Cont.
 Individuals, including students, do differ in how they habitually
think.
 These differences are more specific than learning styles or
preferences, and psychologists sometimes call them cognitive styles.
2. Cognitive Styles:- typical ways of perceiving and remembering
information, and typical ways of solving problems & making
decisions (Zhang & Sternberg, 2006).
a) Field Dependence Versus Field Independence Cognitive Styles
 In a style of thinking called field dependence, for example, individuals
perceive patterns as a whole rather than focus on the parts of the
pattern separately.
 In a complementary tendency, called field independence, individuals
are more inclined to analyze overall patterns into their parts.
110
 b) Impulsive vs Reflective cognitive
style
 Impulsive cognitive style is one in which a person reacts quickly, but as
a result makes comparatively more errors.
 Reflective cognitive style is the opposite: the person reacts more slowly and
therefore, makes fewer errors.
- As you might expect, the reflective style would seem better suited to many
academic demands of school. Research has found that this is indeed the case
for academic skills that clearly benefit from reflection, such as mathematical
problem solving or certain reading tasks (Evans, 2004).
- Some classroom or school-related skills, however, may actually develop
better if a student is relatively impulsive. Being a good partner in a
cooperative learning group, for example, may depend partly on responding
spontaneously (i.e. just a bit “impulsively”) to others’ suggestions; and being
an effective member of an athletic team may depend on not taking time to
reflect carefully on every move that you or your team mates make.
111
 3. Multiple Intelligences
Intelligence:- is a single broad ability that allows a person to
solve or complete many sorts of tasks, or at least many
academic tasks like reading, knowledge of vocabulary, and
the solving of logical problems (Garlick, 2002).
 According to Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple
intelligences (Gardner, 1983, 2003), there are eight different
forms of intelligence, each of which functions
independently of the others.
 Each person has a mix of all eight abilities - more of one
and less of another - that helps to constitute that person’s
individual cognitive profile. 112
Multiple Intelligences (By
Howard Gardner)

113
Cont.

114
 4. Personality Differences
Attitude:- Students have their own personal attitudes and
methods of thinking. Thinking patterns and reactions to the
various philosophies and types of training must be
reconciled.
Interest:- People sense ideas and activities that possess
special values, uses or attractions for them. The general
categories of interest are the vocational, educational, and
recreational. The interests of students in different aspects of
life will differ.

115
 Cont.
Temperament and Personality: Temperament and personality are related to
each other and are developed from very early childhood as it stays with us
our whole lives.
Temperament:
 is the different aspects of an individual’s personality like extroversion
or introversion.
 is innate or inborn and is not learned.
Characteristics related to temperament include: activity (relaxed or
moving around), regularity (sleeping habits), initial reaction
(withdrawal or approach), adaptability (adjustments to changes),
intensity (reactions), mood (happiness or sadness), distractibility
(concentration), persistence (losing interest in some activity), and
sensitivity (stimulation). 116
 Cont.
Personality:
 arises within an individual, which remains
throughout an individual’s life.
 made up of certain characteristic patterns like
behavior, feelings, and thoughts.
 fundamental characteristics related to
personality are: consistency, psychological and
physiological impact on behaviors and
actions, and multiple expressions.
117
 Chapter Four. Basic Concepts
and Theories of Learning
4.1. Definition of Learning
 Learning can be defined as any relatively permanent
change in behavior, which occurs as a result of practice or
experience.
This definition has three important elements. These are:
1. Learning is a change of behavior for better or worse
2. Learning takes place through experience or practice. The changes
due to growth, maturation, or injury are not to be concerned as
learned behavior.
3. The changes to merit the term learning must be relatively
permanent. That is it must last for a fairly long time. Therefore,
changes due to maturation, fatigue, adaptation or sensitivity of the
organism are not considered as learning behaviors 118
 4.2. Characteristics of Learning
1. Learning is growth. A child grows both mentally and
physically through his/her daily activities. Therefore, we
can say that learning is growth through experience.
2. Learning is adjustment. Learning helps an individual to
adjust himself/herself to the new situations.
3. Learning is organizing experience. Learning is not merely
addition to knowledge. It is the reorganization of
experience.
4. Learning is purposeful. All true learning is based on
purpose. We don’t learn anything and everything that
comes in our way in a haphazard manner.
119
 Cont.
5. Learning is intelligent. Meaningless efforts do not produce
permanent result. Only efforts made intelligently have lasting
effects.
6.Learning is active. Learning does not take place without a purpose
and self activity. The principle of learning by doing is the main
principle which has been recommended by all modern
educationalists.
7.Learning is both individual and social. It is an individual and social
activity.
8. Learning is the product of environment. Environment plays an
important role in the growth and development of the individual.
9. True learning affects the conduct of the learner. There is a change
in the mental structure (k/ge, skills & attitude) of the learner after
every experience. 120
 4.3. Goals in Learning
 Goals in learning can be classified into three broad categories:-
acquisition of knowledge, acquisition of skills, and acquisition of
ideas and attitudes.
1. Acquisition of knowledge includes perception, conception and
associative learning.
 Perception: refers to acquisition of a specific knowledge
about objects or events directly stimulating the senses at any
particular moment.
 Conception: refers to acquisition of an organized knowledge
in the form of general ideas and concepts.
 Associative learning: corresponds to memory both as
deliberate recall and recognition of past experience, and
automatic memory due to association 121
 Cont.
2. Acquisition of skills: include reading, writing,
acquisition of language, musical performance, art,
drawing, handwork, etc.
3. Acquisition of ideas and attitudes: refers to the
elements of affection and feelings.

122
 4.4. Factors Affecting Learning
Some of the major factors which the students learning are the
following.
1. The need of the learner
- the interest, attitude and motivation of the learner
2. Readiness of the learner
- Physical and metal maturity
3. Situations
- school environment, home environment, social
environment, human and material resources.
4. Interaction
- between the learner and situations
123
 4.5. Theories of Learning and Their
Educational Implications

Theories of Learning include:

 Behaviorist Orientation of Learning
 Cognitive Orientation of Learning
 Social/Situational Orientation of Learning
 Constructivist Orientation of Learning

These theories of learning attempt to explain the

mechanism of behavior in the learning process.

124
 4.5.1. Behaviorist Orientation of Learning

 There are two categories of behavioral theories of

learning.
 They are stimulus - response theories without
reinforcement
 Pavlov’s classical conditioning theory of learning,
 Guthrie’s learning theory and
 Watson’s theory of learning
 Stimulus - response theories with reinforcement
 Skinner’s operant conditioning theory of learning and
 Thorndike’s theory of learning.
125
 4.5.1.1. Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning

Theory of Learning

 The concept of classical conditioning was founded

by a Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov.
 He studied the relationship between digestion and
salivation by conducting a research on a dog.
 In his experiment, Pavlov identified three steps in
the process of salivary conditioning which can be
summarized as follows.

126
Pavlov’s Experiment

127
 Watson’s Experiment
E.g.2 we can take white rat (CS), Loud noise (UCS)
and fear of the child called "Little Albert" .
- White rat (NS)---------------------------No response.
- Loud sound (UCS)---------------------- Fear (UCR)
-White rat + loud noise --------------- Fear (UCR) with
several pairings
White rat (CS)--------------------------Fear (CR)

128
Cont.

129
 Basic Principles of Classical
Conditioning
 Acquisition
- A process in which a CS gradually acquires the capacity to
elicit a CR as a result of repeated with UCS.
- Initial learning of the CS gain power over the UCS to
produce conditioning.
- The time interval between the CS and the UCS affect the
acquisition of the conditioned response.
 Principle of Association/ Contingency
- Stimulus and response become connected if they
occur close together in time and space.
 Extinction
- The decline of CR in absence of UCS. It is actually inhibition of the CR
rather than elimination of it.
130
 Cont.
 Spontaneous Recovery
- the reappearance of CR after a rest pause.
 Stimulus Generalization
- the tendency to react or respond to stimuli that are
different from but some what similar to a conditioned
stimulus.
 Stimulus Discrimination
- the learning ability to distinguish between CS and other
similar but irrelevant stimuli that do not signal
conditioned stimulus.
- responding only to CS but not to other similar stimuli.
131
 Factors that Influence Classical Conditioning

 Several factors can affect the speed of conditioning during

the acquisition phase.
 The most important factors are the order and timing of the
stimuli.
 The greater the intensity of the US and the greater the
number of pairing of the CS and US, the greater will be
the strength of conditioning.
 The time interval between the CS and the US also affect
acquisition of the CR.
132
 Cont.
 Different types of conditioning can be employed in classical
conditioning based on time and order of CS and UCS. These are:
a) Delayed conditioning: refers to presenting the CS first and letting
to
remain at least until the onset of the UCS. It produces strong
conditioning.
b. Trace conditioning: refers to presenting the conditioned stimulus
first and ending before the onset of the UCS. It produces
moderately strong conditioning.
c. Simultaneous conditioning: refers to beginning and ending of the
CS and the UCS together. It produces weak conditioning.
d. Backward conditioning: is a conditioning in which the onset of the
133
UCS precedes the onset of the CS. It is mostly unsuccessful
 Implications of Classical
Conditioning for Teaching
 Teachers who wish to put classical conditioning to
work in their classrooms could try the following
suggestions:
 Minimize reliance on classically conditioned negative
emotions-Don’t dwell on the shortcomings; assure for
students they will do better work next time
 Link learning with positive emotions.
 Teach students to generalize and discriminate
appropriately-poor performance on one test---
 Be aware of and help students cope with classically
conditioned anxiety-esp. teachers can change mild
134
anxiety
 4.5.1.2. Skinner’s Operant
Conditioning Theory of Learning
 B. F. Skinner, an American psychologist was the founder
of the theory.
 It is also called instrumental conditioning
 Concerned with voluntary and higher learning rather than
reflexive or involuntary learning behavior.
 According to the operant conditioning learning theory, the
learner must operate, or perform a certain behavior, before
receiving a reward or punishment.
 Therefore, it is a type of learning in which behavior
(response) is strengthened if followed by reinforcement, or
diminished if followed by punishment. 135
 Operations in Operant
Conditioning
 Shaping
- judicious use of selective reinforcement to bring certain
desirable changes in the behavior of the organism.
- Directing the natural behavior of the organism towards
the desired behavior ( modification of the natural
behavior)
 Extinction
-withholding the reinforcement when the appropriate
response occurs.
136
 Action

Consequence

Desirable Undesirable
consequence Consequence

Getting sth Avoiding sth Getting sth Avoiding

pleasant unpleasant unpleasant sth pleasant

(+ve reinforcement) (-ve reinforcement ) (+ve punishment) (-

ve punishment)
Termination of (Penalty) like losing
annoying bell in recess, removing
in a car due to fastening attention from a 137
 Cont.
 Reinforces also classified as primary and secondary rein
forcers
Primary- E.g., food, water, termination of shock
- innate and homeostasis and give
immediate enjoyment/satisfaction
Secondary- E.g., Money, grade (mark), respect…
- learned and not homeostasis and gain
reinforcement value through their
association with primary reinforcers
138
 Schedules of Reinforcement

T yp e s o f R e in fo rc e m e n t S c h e d u le s

C o n tin u o u s In te rm itte n t

F ixe d V a ria b le

In te rva l R a tio R a tio In te rva l

139
 Implications of Operant
Conditioning for Teaching
 Try to avoid using punishment to modify
behavior.
 Try ignoring the behavior
 Provide warning cues before applying
punishment.
 Consider appropriate modifications of the
environment.
 When you have tried all these tactics and the
behavior still persists, you may need to incorporate
punishment into a behavior-modification plan. 140
 Cont.
 Desired actions need to be encouraged by reinforcement
 Parents must use extinction to eliminate their child's nosy
behavior.
 When parents ignored the undesirable behavior,
responding to it, the children stopped the unwanted
behavior.
 In the class room, the principle of immediacy of
reinforcement is very important.
 Praise for a job done will given immediately can be a stronger
reinforces or motivator than a grade given much later.
 Use the Premack principle (using bait exchange high for low) to
reinforce. 141
 Learning
 A primary focus of this approach is on memory (the
storage and retrieval of information).
 Cognitive theorists believe that learning is the result of
our attempts to make sense of the world.
 Cognitive theorists explain that the ways we think
about situations with others influence how and what
we learn.
 Furthermore, cognitive theories emphasize internal
processes, apply to human functioning, and provide
explanations, which emphasize manipulation and
structure of information. 142
 4.5.2.1. Gestalt Theory of
Learning
 The gestalt theory of learning also named as learning by insight
which is the contribution of German psychologists who were
studying the nature of perception.
 Human beings who solve a problem insightfully usually
experience a good feeling called an 'aha' experience.
 Gestalt is the German word for "form" and as it applied in
Gestalt psychology it means "unified whole" or”
configuration."
 The essential point of gestalt is that in perception the whole is
different from the sum of its parts.
 Gestalt psychology is based on the observation that we often
experience things that are not a part of our simple sensations.
143
 Cont.
 According to gestalt theory, learning occurs neither as a result
of trial and error nor as a conditioning.
 It occurs rather by insight in to the whole situation to be
learned.
 In other words learning does not occur by random steps, or by
trial and error or by conditioning but by insight, introspection
(self-reflection) and understanding.
 Gestalt theory of learning essentially consists of problem solving
by understanding the relative position of the elements in the
entire perceptual situations.
 According to Gestalt psychologists , learning viewed as
purposive, explorative, imaginative, and creative enterprise in
which the total situation is taken in to account by the learner.144
 Basic Principles in Gestalt
Theory
1. The Principle of Pragnanz. Pragnanz is German for pregnant,
but in the sense of pregnant with meaning, rather than
pregnant with child.
 This law says that we are innately driven to experience
things in as good a gestalt as possible.
 “Good” can mean many things here, such a regular, orderly,
simplicity, symmetry, and so on, which then refer to specific
gestalt laws.
 For example, a set of dots outlining the shape of a star is
likely to be perceived as a star, not as a set of dots.

145
 2. The Principle of similarity
 This principle suggests that similar things tend to be associated
in group and easy to recall than dissimilar things.
 Therefore learning similar things is easier than learning
dissimilar ones.
OXXXXXXXXXX
XOXXXXXXXXX
XXOXXXXXXXX
3. The Principle of Proximity
 This principle states that objects which are close in space and
time tend to form a gestalt.
 This means that we perceive all closely situated or located
things as a group.
146
 4. The Principle of Closure
 The law of closure says that, if something is missing in an
otherwise complete figure, we will tend to add it (close the
gap).
 A triangle, for example, with a small part of its edge missing,
will still be seen as a triangle.
5. The Principle of continuation
 This law states that organization in perception that appears to
go in a particular direction appears to be going infinitely in
the same direction.

147
 Cont.
 When we can see a line, for example, as continuing through
another line, rather than stopping and starting, we will do so, as
in this example, which we see as composed of two lines, not as a
combination of two angles...:

6. The Principle of Transposition

 This principle states that organization in perception
that appears to go in a particular direction without
losing their identity.
148
 7. The Principle of Figure-ground
 We seem to have an innate tendency to perceive one aspect of an
event as the figure or fore-ground and the other as the ground
or back-ground.
 There is only one image here, and yet, by changing nothing but
our attitude, we can see two different things.
 It doesn’t even seem to be possible to see them both at the same
time.

149
 Educational Implication of the
Theory of Insight
 From whole to parts: The whole is more than the sum of parts.
Therefore, teachers should present the topic or sub topic as a
whole.
 Problem solving approach: the theory rejects memorization and
rote learning. The students should be placed in a position of
discoveries. Spoon-feeding is no way results in constructive and
critic thinking.
 Integrated approach: Contents of the subject should be closely
integrated in to a whole. In the same way, all subjects and
activities of the curriculum should reflect unity and cohesion.
 Motivational aspect: The learner’s curiosity and interest must
be aroused. He/she should familiarize with specific aims and
purposes of every task that is being undertaken. 150
 4.5.2.2. The Information
Processing Theory
 The focus of this approach is how information is stored in
memory.
 The information processing approach relies on computers
as a model for human learning.
 Like the computer, the human mind takes information,
performs operation on it to change its form and content,
stores and locates it and generates responses to it.

151
 Cont.
Processes in Memory
 There are three processes in memory. These are:
 Encoding – refers to gathering and representing information.
 Storage – is holding and saving of information for future use.
 Retrieval – gaining and using of information from memory
whenever needed.

Storage
(Saving of
information for
future use)

152
153
 The role of Attention for
Sensory Memory
 Very large number of stimuli stimulates our sense organ daily.
 But we don’t perceive all this stimulation.
 By paying attention to certain stimuli and ignoring others, we
select from all the possibilities what we will process.
 Attention is a very limited resource.
 We can pay attention to only one demanding task at a time.
 That is, many processes that initially require attention and
concentration becomes automatic with practice.
 The first step in learning is paying attention.
 Students can not process something that they don’t recognize or
perceive.
154
 Improving Short Term Memory
 It is possible to improve the duration and capacity of short term
memory through Rehearsal and Chunking methods
Rehearsal
 Most people rehearse information mentally to retain it for a
long time.
 Rehearsal simply refers to mentally repetition of information.
 There are two types of rehearsal methods: maintenance
rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal.
Maintenance rehearsal- involves repetition of information in mind.
This type of rehearsal is useful for retaining information you plan
to use it and then forget, like phone number.
155
 Cont.
Elaborative rehearsal: involves associating information that person
trying to remember with something a person already knows- with the
information in long term memory.
 This kind of rehearsal is not only to maintain information in short
term memory, but helps to move the information from short term
memory to long term memory.
Chunking
 Chunking is the process of grouping individual bits of information.
 You can retain more information if you can group individual bits
of information together.
 For example, if you are asked to remember the following ten digit
number in any order, 4 1 2 7 6 8 2 1 9 0 you can group it either
046-221-78-19 or 412-768- 2190. 156
 Storing Information in Long
Term Memory
The way you learn information in the first place seems to affect its
recall later.
 Elaboration: is the addition of meaning to new information
through its connection with already existing knowledge.
 Organization: is a second element of process that improves
learning. Materials that are well organized are easier to learn
and to remember than bits and pieces of information, especially
if the information is complex or extensive.
 Context: is a third element of processing that influence learning.
Aspects of physical and emotional context are learned along
with other information. Later if you try to remember the
information, it will be easier if the current context is similar to
the original one. 157
 4.5.2.3. Latent Learning

 Evidence for the importance of cognitive processes comes

from a series of animal experiments that revealed a type of
cognitive learning called latent learning.
 ‘Latent‘ means hidden and thus latent learning is learning
that occurs but is not evident in behavior until later, when
conditions for its appearance are favorable/rewarded.
 It is said to occur without reinforcement of particular
responses and seems to involve changes in the way
information is processed.
 In a classic experiment, Tolman and Honzic (1930) placed
three groups of rats in mazes and observed their behavior
each day for more than two weeks.
 Cont.

 The rats in Group 1 always found food at the end of the maze. Group
2 never found food. Group 3 found no food for ten days but then
received food on the eleventh.
 The Group 1 rats quickly learned to head straight the end of the
maze without going blind alleys, whereas Group 2 rats did not learn
to go to the end. But, Group 3 rats were different.
 For ten days they appeared to follow no particular route. Then, on
the eleventh day they quickly learned to run to the end of the maze.
By the next day, they were doing, as well as group one, which had
been rewarded from the beginning.
 Group three rats had demonstrated latent learning, learning that is
not immediately expressed. A great deal of human learning also
remains latent until circumstances allow or require it to be expressed.
 Cont.

 To cognitive theorists, it seemed clear that the

unrewarded rats had learned the layout of the maze
early in their explorations; they just never displayed
their latent learning until the reinforcement was offered.
 Instead, those rats seemed to develop a cognitive map of
the maze—a mental representation of spatial locations
and directions.
 People, too, develop cognitive maps of their
surroundings.
 For example, latent learning may permit you to know
the location of a kitchenware store at a local mall you’ve
frequently visited, even though you’ve never entered the
store and don’t even like to cook.
 4.5.3. Social/Situational
Orientation of Learning
 Social learning takes place as we learn from
observing other people's behavior and the
results of their behavior.
 Since it occurs by observing others, it is
sometimes called observational learning or
even vicarious learning.
 The founder of social learning theory was
Albert Bandura.

161
 Cont.
 Bandura, and a number of colleagues, studied
children by categorizing them into three
groups, who watched films featuring an adult
interacting with an inflatable toy known as a
Bobo doll.
 The adult was highly aggressive, hitting,
kicking, punching, and throwing things at the
doll.
 The results were simple clear and clear
162
 Cont.
 One way to motivate students to behave in a
certain way is to give them reasons to behave
that way.
 Another is to reinforce them.
Reinforcement can take any of the following
forms:
 Direct reinforcement: as when you reward
students for behaving the way you wish them
to.
163
 Cont.
 Vicarious reinforcement: occurs when
children watch someone else being reinforced
(as in real life or on TV).
 Self-reinforcement: rewards people deliver to
themselves for showing desired behavior.
 Children need to learn to reinforce themselves
so they can become self-regulated learners.

164
 Four Phases/Stages Involved in
Observational Learning
1. Attention-It is active perception and has
great implications for teaching
2. Retention- Remembering using active
memory techniques
3. Reproduction- Practicing/ physically
and/intellectually capable of
producing the act
4. Motivation-Motivating to model the observed behavior
165
 Implications of Social Learning
for Teaching
 Acquire new behavior-model the students to learn
 Manifest already learned behavior
 Strengthen or weaken inhibitions to action
 Direct attention toward what is important
 Arouse appropriate emotions
 Expert teachers convey the enthusiasm they have
for subject matter and the repulsion they feel
toward inappropriate behavior such as cheating
 Use peers as models: in group work, pair students who do
well with those who are having difficulty.
166
 Cont.
 Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors and
take care that they do not model inappropriate behaviors
 Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models.
 This technique is especially important to break down
traditional stereotypes
 Students must believe that they are capable of accomplishing
school tasks
 Thus it is very important to develop a sense of self-efficacy
for students.
 Teachers should help students set realistic expectations for
their academic accomplishments
167
 4.5.4. Constructivist
Orientation of Learning
 The core ideas expressed by it have been clearly
articulated by John Dewey, Piaget, Vygotsky among
others, but there is a new, widespread acceptance of
this old set of ideas, and new research in cognitive
psychology to support it
 The term constructivism refers to the idea that
learners construct knowledge for themselves - each
learner individually (and socially) constructs meaning
as he or she learns.
 Constructing meaning is learning; there is no other
kind. 168
 Cont.
 The dramatic consequences of this view are twofold:
 We have to focus on the learner in thinking about
learning (not on the subject/lesson to be taught).
 There is no knowledge independent of the meaning
attributed to experience (constructed) by the
learner, or community of learners.
 Learning is not understanding the "true" nature of
things, nor is it (as Plato suggested) remembering dimly
perceived perfect ideas, but rather a personal and social
construction of meaning.
169
 Cont.
 This view may engage us in providing the learner with
activities, with hands-on learning, with opportunities
to experiment and manipulate the objects of the world,
but the intention is always to make clear to the learner
the structure of the world independent of the learner.
 We help the learner understand the world, but we
don't ask him to construct his or her own world.

170
 Constructivist Learning Principles
1. Learning is an active process
2. People learn to learn as they learn-Learning consists
both of constructing meaning and constructing systems of
meaning.
3. The crucial action of constructing meaning is mental:
 It happens in the mind. Physical actions, hands-on
experience may be necessary for learning, especially for
children, but it is not sufficient; we need to provide activities
which engage the mind as well as the hands. (Dewey called
this reflective activity.)
4. Learning involves language-people talk to themselves as
they learn 171
 Cont.
5. Learning is a social activity:
 Our learning is intimately associated with our connection with
other human beings, our teachers, our peers, our family as well
as casual acquaintances, including the people before us or next
to us at the exhibit.
 We are more likely to be successful in our efforts to educate if
we recognize this principle rather than try to avoid it.
6. Learning is contextual:
 We learn in relationship to what else we know, what we believe, our
prejudices and our fears.
 On reflection, it becomes clear that this point is actually a corollary of
the idea that learning is active and social.
172
 We cannot divorce our learning from our lives.
 Cont.
7. One needs knowledge to learn: It is not possible to assimilate
new knowledge without having some structure developed from
previous knowledge to build on. The more we know, the more we
can learn.
8. It takes time to learn: Learning is not instantaneous. For
significant learning we need to revisit ideas, ponder them try them
out, play with them and use them. If you reflect on anything you
have learned, you soon realize that it is the product of repeated
exposure and thought.
9. Motivation is a key component in learning. Not only is it the
case that motivation helps learning, it is essential for learning.
Unless we know "the reasons why", we may not be very involved
in using the knowledge 173
 Characteristics of Constructivist Teaching
 The learners are actively involved
 The environment is democratic
 The activities are interactive and student-centered
 The teacher facilitates a process of learning in which students
are encouraged to be responsible and autonomous
Constructivist Teaching Methods
 Constructivist teaching is based on the belief that learning
occurs as learners are actively involved in a process of
meaning and knowledge construction as opposed to passively
receiving information.
 Learners are the makers of meaning and knowledge.
174
 Cont.
 Constructivist teaching fosters critical thinking, and
creates motivated and independent learners.
 A wide variety of methods claim to be based on
constructivist learning theory.
 Most of these methods rely on some form of guided
discovery where the teacher avoids most direct instruction
and attempts to lead the student through questions and
activities to discover, discuss, appreciate, and verbalize the
new knowledge.
 Constructivist learning theory says that all knowledge is
constructed from a base of prior knowledge.
175
 Cont.
 An important concept for social constructivists is that of
scaffolding (providing support) which is a process of
guiding the learner from what is presently known to what
is to be known.
 According to Vygotsky (1978), students' problem solving
skills fall in to three categories:
 skills which the student cannot perform
 skills which the student may be able to perform
 skills that the student can perform with help
 Scaffolding allows students to perform tasks that would
normally be slightly beyond their ability without that
assistance and guidance from the teacher. 176
 Cont.
 Another Vygotskian principle for teaching involves
the zone of proximal development.
 Like Piaget, Vygotsky believed that there were some
problems out of a child's range of understanding.
 However, in contrast, Vygotsky believed that given
proper help and assistance, children could perform a
problem that Piaget would consider to be out of the
child's mental capabilities.
 The zone is the area at which a child can perform a
challenging task, given appropriate help
177
 Cont.
 Piaget and Vygotsky also differ in how they approach
discovery learning.
 Piaget advocated for discovery learning with little
teacher intervention, while Vygotsky promoted
guided discovery in the classroom.

178
 Difference between Traditional
and Constructivist Classrooms

179
 Educational Implications of
Constructivist Classroom
• Pose problems that are or will be relevant to
students
• Structure learning around essential concepts
• Be aware that students’ points of view are
windows into their reasoning
• Adapt teaching to address students’ suppositions
and development
• Assess student learning in context of teaching
180
 CHAPTER Five
Motivation in Relation to Teaching and Learning

5. 1. Meaning and Concept of Motivation

Motivation:- is an internal state that arouses us to action,
pushes us in a particular directions, and keeps us
engaged in certain activities.
 desire or want that energizes and directs goal-
oriented behavior; and
 influence of needs and desires on the intensity and
direction of behavior.
 Learning enables us to acquire new knowledge and skills, and
motivation provides the impetus/energy for showing what we have
learned.
Therefore, more motivated people achieve at higher levels.
181
 Cont.
Motivation as a psychological construct affects learning and
performance in the following ways:
1. Increases an individual’s energy and activity level.
 influences the extent to which an individual is likely to engage in a certain
activity intensively or half-heartedly.
2. Directs an individual toward certain goal.
 affects choices of people make and the results they find rewarding.
3. Promotes initiation of certain activities and persistence in those
activities.
 It increases the likelihood that people will begin something on their own,
persist in the face of difficulty, and resume a task after a temporary
interruption.
182
 Cont.
4. Affects the learning strategies and cognitive processes an
individual employs.
 People will pay attention to something, study and practice it,
try to learn it in a meaningful fashion and they will seek help
when they encounter difficulty.
5.2. Types of Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation
- The need to perform something arises from the individual
himself without any external influences. Therefore, students
with intrinsic motivation demonstrate the desire to learn by
themselves without the need of external inducements.
183
 Cont.
- Even if they encounter failure, they can take
responsibility and strive to improve in the future.
• Extrinsic motivation
 The need to perform some thing comes from
some external influences. Therefore, marks,
prizes, and other tangible rewards have been
used to influence some student’s behavior.

184
5.3. Sources of Motivational
Needs

185
 Cont.
o behavioral/external
- elicited by stimulus associated/connected to innately connected
stimulus
- obtain desired, pleasant consequences (rewards) or escape/avoid
undesired, unpleasant consequences
 social
- imitate positive models
- acquire effective social competence skills
- be a part of a dyad, group, institution, or community
 biological
- increase/decrease stimulation (arousal)
- activate senses (taste, touch, smell, etc.
- decrease hunger, thirst, discomfort, etc.
- maintain homeostasis, balance 186
 Cont.
 Cognitive: -
-maintain attention to something interesting or threatening
- develop meaning or understanding
- increase/decrease cognitive disequilibrium; uncertainty
- solve a problem or make a decision
- figure something out
- eliminate threat or risk
 affective
- increase/decrease affective dissonance
- increase feeling good
- decrease feeling bad
- increase security of or decrease threats to self-esteem
- maintain levels of optimism and enthusiasm
187
 Cont.
Conative: Related with individual self-direction and self-regulation
- meet individually developed/selected goal
- obtain personal dream
- develop or maintain self-efficacy
- take control of one's life
- eliminate threats to meeting goal, obtaining dream
- reduce others' control of one's life
spiritual
- understand purpose of one's life
- connect self to ultimate unknowns
188
 5.4. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Theory of Motivation

 Abraham Maslow proposed a hierarchical of five

needs that must be satisfied to reach the highest level

of motivation.
 The highest needs can be satisfied only after the lower

needs are satisfied.

 A schematic representation of Maslow’s hierarchy of

motivation is presented as follows.

189
Cont.

190
191