UNIT-II

Computer Languages
Over the years, computer languages have been evolved from Low-Level to High-Level Languages.
In the earliest days of computers, only Binary Language was used to write programs. The
computer languages are classified as follows:
 Machine Language (low level language)

•Low-Level language is the only language which can be understood by the computer. Low-level
language is also known as Machine Language.

•The machine language contains only two symbols 1 & 0. All the instructions of machine
language are written in the form of binary numbers 1's & 0's. A computer can directly
understand the machine language.
 Assembly Language (middle level language)

Middle-level language is a computer language in which the instructions are created using
symbols such as letters, digits and special characters.

Assembly language is an example of middle-level language. In assembly language, we use

predefined words called mnemonics.

 Binary code instructions in low-level language are replaced with mnemonics and
operands in middle-level language. But the computer cannot understand mnemonics, so we
use a translator called Assembler to translate mnemonics into machine language.

Assembler is a translator which takes assembly code as input and produces machine code
as output. That means, the computer cannot understand middle-level language, so it needs
to be translated into a low-level language to make it understandable by the computer.

Assembler is used to translate middle-level language into low-level language.

g++ -S main.cpp -o main.s
 High Level Language

High-level language is a computer language which can be understood by the users. The high-level
language is very similar to human languages and has a set of grammar rules that are used to make
instructions more easily.

Every high-level language has a set of predefined words known as Keywords and a set of rules known
as Syntax to create instructions. The high-level language is easier to understand for the users but the
computer can not understand it.

High-level language needs to be converted into the low-level language to make it understandable by
the computer. We use Compiler or interpreter to convert high-level language to low-level language.

Languages like FORTRAN,C, C++, JAVA, Python, etc., are examples of high-level languages. All these
programming languages use human-understandable language like English to write program
instructions. These instructions are converted to low-level language by the compiler or interperter so
that it can be understood by the computer.
g++ main.cpp
 operating system as a user interface

There are different kinds of operating systems: such as Windows, Linux and Mac OS
There are also different versions of these operating systems, e.g. Windows 10 and 11
Operating systems can be used with different user interfaces (UI): text user interfaces (TUI) and
graphical user interfaces (GUI) as examples
Graphical user interfaces have many similarities in different operating systems: such as the
start menu, desktop etc.
When you can recognize the typical parts of each operating system’s user interface, you will
mostly be able to use both Windows and Linux as well as e.g. Mac OS.

The role of operating system in the computer

An operating system (OS) is a set of programs which ensures the interoperability of the
hardware and software in your computer. The operating system enables, among other things,
the identification and activation of devices connected to the computer,
the installation and use of programs, and
the handling of files.
Different operating systems
Over the years, several different operating systems have been developed for different purposes.
The most typical operating systems in ordinary computers are Windows, Linux and Mac OS.

Windows
The name of the Windows OS comes from the fact that programs are run in “windows”: each
program has its own window, and you can have several programs open at the same time.
Windows is the most popular OS for home computers, and there are several versions of it. The
newest version is Windows 11.
Linux and Unix
Linux is an open-source OS, which means that its program code is freely available to software
developers. This is why thousands of programmers around the world have developed Linux, and
it is considered the most tested OS in the world. Linux has been very much influenced by the
commercial Unix OS.
In addition to servers, Linux is widely used in home computers, since there are a great number
of free programs for it (for text and image processing, spreadsheets, publishing, etc.). Over the
years, many different versions of Linux have become available for distribution, most of which are
free for the user (such as Ubuntu, Fedora and Mint, to name a few).
Linux can be installed on a PC as the only operating system or alongside Windows, so that each
time the machine is started, the user selects either one. Linux may also be used on a virtual
computer from the Windows environment, or vice versa, Windows from Linux.

Mac OS X

Apple’s Mac computers have their own operating system, OS X. Most of the programs that are
available for PCs are also available for Macs running under OS X, but these two types of computers
cannot use the exact same programs: for example, you cannot install the Mac version of the Microsoft
Office suite on a Windows computer. You can install other operating systems on Mac computers, but the
OS X is only available for computers made by Apple. Apple’s lighter portable devices (iPads, iPhones)
use a light version of the same operating system, called iOS.

Mac computers are popular because OS X is considered fast, easy to learn and very stable and
Apple’s devices are considered well-designed—though rather expensive.
Android
Android is an operating system designed for phones and other mobile devices. Android is not available
for desktop computers, but in mobile devices it is extremely popular: more than a half of all mobile
devices in the world run on Android.

User interfaces
A user interface (UI) refers to the part of an operating system, program, or device that allows a user to
enter and receive information. A text-based user interface (see the image to the left) displays text, and
its commands are usually typed on a command line using a keyboard. With a graphical user interface
(see the right-hand image), the functions are carried out by clicking or moving buttons, icons and
menus by means of a pointing device.

Larger image: text UI | graphical UI

The images contain the same information: a directory listing of a computer. You can often carry
out the same tasks regardless of which kind of UI you are using.
 Text user interface (TUI)

Modern graphical user interfaces have evolved from text-based UIs. Some operating systems, such as
Linux, can still be used with a text-based user interface. In this case, the commands are entered as text
(e.g., “cat story.txt”).

Graphical user interface

In most operating systems, the primary user interface is graphical, i.e. instead of typing the commands
you manipulate various graphical objects (such as icons) with a pointing device.

The underlying principle of different graphical user interfaces (GUIs) is largely the same, so by
knowing how to use a Windows UI, you will most likely know how to use Linux or some other GUI.
Most GUIs have the following basic components:

a start menu with program groups

a taskbar showing running programs
a desktop
various icons and shortcuts.
 Utility programs

Utility programs is a system application that executes a specific task, generally pertaining to optimal
maintenance or operation of the system resources.

Operating systems such as Windows, macOS and Linux come with their own set of utility programs to
maintain and execute different utility functions such as formatting, compressing, scanning, exploring
and much more.

In other words Utility-program definition means, Utility programs also assists with the management of
computer functions, resources and files. You can ensure complete password protection and keep your
systems virus free using different utility programs.

What are the Functions of Utility Programs?

1. System Utilities
Some of the system utility programs are memory manager, antivirus and firewall, registry checker
and cleaner, package installer and explorer. Also, with the help of such system utility program in
computer, users can execute functions that are crucial for smooth running of an operating system.
2. File Management Utilities
File management utilities include tools such as data archivers, software backup tools, file
compression tools and managers. With the help of these, users can manage their data in the form of
files and folders. These utilities help users to sort out, store and categorise files according to the
requirement.
3. Storage Device Management Utilities
Storage device management utility programs provide solutions for enhancing disk capacity, such as
disk clean-up, partition management, formatting, disk space allocation, defragmentation, etc. With
the help of this system utility software, users can compartmentalize systems and external drives for
efficient management of programs and files that are stored within.

4. Miscellaneous Utilities
Apart from these three utility program categories, there are various other programs that help in
managing business operations. Some of these programs include data generators, HTML checkers
and hex editors, to name a few.
Advantages of Utility Software
Let’s check out the different advantages of utility software that can be beneficial for its users.
1. Efficiently manage your data and files with proper storage

2. Remove unnecessary files to ensure that you always have storage space for new applications and
programs

3. Enhance your system’s security by protecting it from malicious virus threats and attacks

4. Easily and quickly locate and access your files and folders in the system with the interface
customization feature of utility software

5. Find your lost files and folders with file recovery software and recover any data loss

6. Enhance your system’s performance by creating space and efficiently managing system storage
 Word Processing
Word Processing refers to the act of using a computer to create, edit, save and print documents.

In order to perform word processing, specialized software (known as a Word Processor) is needed.

One example of a Word Processor is Microsoft Word, but other word processing applications are also
widely used.

A word processor is a device or software program capable of creating, storing, and printing text
documents. It allows users to write and modify text, display it on a screen, save it electronically, and
print it out.

Word processing software is one of the most common technology tools in the world, allowing users to
create resumes and cover letters, business correspondence, blog posts, novels, and more.

Traditionally, word processors were computer applications downloaded to a specific number of

computers. But as cloud computing has become more common, so have browser-based word
processors. These typically lack the more advanced features of a traditional program; however, they
offer more flexibility and the ability to collaborate in real time.
Read on to learn more about the various features of word processing software.
1. Text manipulation
The main feature of any word processor is the ability to manipulate text within a document, such as
the ability to insert, cut and paste, and copy text.

More advanced capabilities may include word wrapping, where the program automatically moves to
the next line once you’ve filled the current one with text.

The ability to quickly type, edit, and move text is what makes word processing programs such
valuable tools for any computer user.

2. Font specifications
Another standard feature of word processors is the ability to change the look of fonts within a
document.

Most programs give users the ability to bold, italicize, and underline text, as well as change the font size.

Different typefaces are usually available, helping users create a document that is more uniform and
easier to read than something handwritten.
3. Page layout
Most word processing software allows users to change the layout of the document they’re creating.
This could include changing the page size, margins, and indentations, and adding columns. It could
also include the option to create headers and footers, and page numbers.
4. Graphics
Basic word processors may give users the ability to add simple tables, graphs, or numbered lists, but those
with more advanced capabilities offer greater options when it comes to adding visual elements.
Some allow users to embed illustrations, more complex graphs, and even videos. These graphics can either
be created within the word processing software itself or produced in a different program and then copied
over.
5. Collaboration tools
Browser-based word processors make it easy for multiple people to collaborate on the same
document.

 For example, Word on Office.com lets users track their changes, leave comments, tag and assign tasks
to others, and review previous versions of the document.

In a world where people need to collaborate across continents, these collaboration tools are
invaluable.
6. Spelling and grammar assistance
Most word processing programs feature built-in spell checking as well as basic grammar checking.

They may also have a searchable thesaurus and be able to provide suggestions for word choice. Some
processors, however, have a more robust editing capability.

For example, Microsoft Editor not only checks for spelling and grammar mistakes, but it also suggests
areas that could use more clarity, checks online sources for similarities, and rates document readability.

Factors to consider when selecting a word processor

The type of operating system installed
Its user friendliness
Its formatting and editing features
Whether it is commercial or open source software
Parts of a Microsoft word window
1. Title bar
It a bar at the top of a the window and it displays the titile currently running application at task
2. Menu Bar
It contains menus that provides lists of commands
3. Status bar
It is an interactive strip at the bottom of the screen that acts as a communication link between
the user and the program.
Editing – Its is making necessary changes in a document

TWO TYPING MODES

1. Insert Mode – When text is typed between the existing words or characters it pushes the existing
text forward without replacing them
2. Type over mode – When text is typed between words or characters the new text automatically
replaces the existing text by deleting it.
3. Formatting - Applying various styles or features in order to enhance the document appearance

Text Formatting Features

1. Changing font type, size style
2. Changing font colour
3. Underlining – Placing a line at the bottom of a text
4. Bolding – Making the text appear more darker than the rest
5. Italicizing –making the text slant forward
6. Superscript and subscript
7. Strikethrough
 Formatting a Word Document
You can format your document and make changes to the font, font style, font colour and font size.
To format any text, you must select it first. Text can be selected or highlighted using the following
methods.
1.Click at the beginning of your text, hold down the left mouse button and then drag to the end of your
text.
2.Click at the beginning of your text. While holding down the shift key, move using the right arrow key
until you reach the end of your text. You can use the down arrow to move to another sentence.
3.Click the beginning of your text, hold down the shift key, and then click at the end of your text.
4.To select one word, double-click on it.
5.To select a whole paragraph, triple-click it.
6.To select a whole document, click on its margin three times.
7.Click on Edit and then select All or hold down the CTRL key and then press A.
After successfully highlighting the text you want to format, click on the Format menu and select Font.
On the dialogue box that appears, you can change many things related to the font.
 Changing Case

There are several sentence cases that you can apply to your text. These include Sentence case,
lowercase, UPPERCASE, Title Case and tOGGLE cASE.

The Change case feature can be very useful. Say you have a whole paragraph where you want to
capitalize each of the first characters of every word.

It would be an arduous task to do this manually. But you can do this quickly and easily with the Title
Case option
To do this, highlight the text you want to change. Go to Format, and then Change case. Then
select the sentence case you want.

Background Formatting in MS Word

Word allows you to set a nice background to your document. To do this, go to Format and then
select the background.
You can choose a plain colour for your background or go crazy and mix your own colours using
the fill effects option.
Under the fill effects, you have a variety of options under gradient, texture, pattern or picture.
For the gradient, you can make use of one colour (you can make it darker or lighter), two colours
(you choose any two colours you want) or presets (colour patterns already saved on your
computer).
I recommend that you play around with the different shading styles as much as you can. This will
be the best way to learn.
For texture, pattern and picture, you can just select the one you want.
Tip: When using the picture option, you can use any kind of picture (even your own picture) as
your page background as long as it is saved on your computer.
 Spelling and Grammar Checking in MS Word
Once you have typed your text into Microsoft Word, you will probably want to edit and format
your document to make it more appealing.
The best thing about Word is that it highlights any errors that you have made, whether it is a
typo, a misspelling, or a grammar error.

Some errors will be automatically corrected as you type. For instance, if you type the word
'exampel', Word will correct it for you automatically.

Thanks to the auto-correct feature in the program, you might not even realize that you had
made an error.
After you have finished typing a document, it is recommended that you use the spelling and
grammar check features. There are two ways you can do this.
You can right-click on the underlined word or phrase and, check on the given suggestions, then
select the correct one.
You can use the spelling and grammar tool. Click on Tools and then select Spelling and Grammar.
This tool comes in handy when you need to spell-check a lot of text. You can look through the
list of suggested words for the appropriate corrections.
You can ignore words that are not in the dictionary. You also have the option of adding words to
the dictionary.
How do you create a table in Microsoft Word?
Answer
The basic steps for creating a standard table in Microsoft Word (2013) are:
1. Open a blank Word document
2. In the top ribbon, press Insert

3. Click on the Table button

4. Either use the diagram to select the number of columns and rows you need, or click Insert
Table and a dialog box will appear where you can specify the number of columns and rows.
5. The blank table will now appear on the page. Alter it as necessary. Standard features like bold,
italics, and underline are still available! These items may be helpful for creating headings or
calling out certain items in the table.

6. Follow these instructions for ensuring your table meets APA formatting guidelines.
 printing in word processing

1. To access the Print pane:

Select the File tab. Backstage view will appear.

2. Select Print. The Print pane will appear.

Click the buttons in the interactive below to learn more about using the Print pane.

You can also access the Print pane by pressing Ctrl+P on your keyboard.
To print a document:
Navigate to the Print pane, then select the desired printer.
2. Enter the number of copies you want to print.

3. Select any additional settings if needed.

 4. Click Print.

Custom printing
Sometimes you may find it unnecessary to print your entire document, in which case custom
printing may be more suited for your needs. Whether you're printing several individual pages or
a range of pages, Word allows you to specify exactly which pages you'd like to print.

To custom print a document:

If you'd like to print individual pages or page ranges, you'll need to separate each entry with a
comma (1, 3, 5-7, or 10-14 for example).
1. Navigate to the Print pane.
2. In the Pages: field, enter the pages you want to print.

3. Click Print.
 How to Create a Macro in Word

A macro is a series of commands that are recorded and saved, so that they can be easily run
again on demand. If you have a series of repetitive tasks, recording a macro can save you a lot of
time.
Show the Developer Tab
Before you can create or use macros, you’ll need to turn on the Developer tab.

1. Click the File tab.

2. Select Options.
•The Word Options window opens.
3. Click the Customize Ribbon tab on the left.
The column on the right controls which ribbon tabs are enabled.
4Check the Developer check box.
5. Click OK.
The Developer tab now appears at the end of the ribbon.

Enable Macros
Once you've enabled the Developer tab, you can change a document's security settings to allow macros
to be used.
1. Enable the Developer tab in Word Options.
2. Click the Developer tab.
3. Click the Macro Security button.
Before you use macros, it's important to know that macros can be a security risk. Since they run
outside code, running one from an untrustworthy source can infect your computer, or others on
your network, with a virus.
4. Choose the proper security level.

There are four levels of macro security:

The first level disables macros entirely, blocking them without a notification. This option is the safest
but doesn’t allow you to run macros at all—even macros you record yourself.

The default setting blocks macros but displays a notification. This notification allows you to enable
macros on a case-by-case basis. This option is safe, as long as you know that you can trust the macros
you allow.

You can automatically enable digitally signed macros. You'll still be prompted for most macros, but
trusted macros will be allowed without a prompt.

Finally, you can enable all macros without a prompt. This can be dangerous, so use this command with
caution.

5. Click OK.
The selected macro security setting is enabled.

Record a Macro
1. When you have a repetitive series of tasks to perform, you can record those tasks as a
macro.
2. Place the cursor where you want to start recording the macro.

3. Click the Record Macro button. The Record Macro window opens, where you can set up
the macro’s name, description, and triggering mechanism before you record it.

Give the macro a name. Notice that the macro will be saved to the Normal template,
meaning that it will be available in other documents created using that template. If you need
it saved to another template or document, make sure to specify that here.
Next, you can choose whether the macro gets triggered to run by a button that can be added to the
Quick Access Toolbar, or a keyboard shortcut key combination. This lesson will cover adding a macro
that uses a keyboard shortcut.
4. Click the Keyboard button.
5. Press the keyboard shortcut keys that you want to use.
Make sure to use a keyboard shortcut combination that won’t interfere with any other
Word or system commands.
6. Click Assign.
7. Click Close.
The macro immediately begins recording.
8. Record the macro.
While recording, the macro captures keystrokes and buttons clicked, but text selection made with the
mouse will not be recorded. Use the keyboard to select text and move the cursor, if you want those
actions recorded.

A Stop button will also appear on the status bar while a macro is recording.
9. Click the Stop button when you’re finished recording.

The recording stops, and the macro is saved.

Run a Macro
When you’ve recorded and saved a macro into a document, you can run it using the keyboard shortcut
or Quick Access Toolbar button assigned to it when it was created. You can also view all the macros in a
document and choose one to run directly.
1. Click where you want to run the macro.
2. Click the Developer tab.
3. Click the Macros button. All the macros in the current template are listed in the Macros dialog box.
From here, you can run a macro, edit it, create a new one, or delete macros that you no longer need.
4. Select a macro.
Select a macro and click the Edit button to open the macro in the Visual Basic editor. From there, you
can view the steps the macro uses, delete unneeded steps, or even change the properties of a step to
customize the macro even more.
5. Click the Run button.
The selected macro is run.
 How to Use Mail Merge in Microsoft Word

Mail Merge is most often used to print or email form letters to multiple recipients. Using Mail Merge,
you can easily customize form letters for individual recipients. Mail merge is also used to create
envelopes or labels in bulk.
This feature works the same in all modern versions of Microsoft Word: 2010, 2013, and 2016.
1.In a blank Microsoft Word document, click on the Mailings tab, and in the Start Mail Merge group, click
Start Mail Merge.

2. Click Step-by-Step Mail Merge Wizard.

3. Select your document type. In this demo we will select Letters. Click Next: Starting document.

4. Select the starting document. In this demo we will use the current (blank) document. Select
Use the current document and then click Next: Select recipients.
•Note that selecting Start from existing document (which we are not doing in this demo) changes the
view and gives you the option to choose your document. After you choose it, the Mail Merge Wizard
reverts to Use the current document.
5. Select recipients. In this demo we will create a new list, so select Type a new list and then click
Create.

Create a list by adding data in the New Address List dialog box and clicking OK.
 Save the list.
•Note that now that a list has been created, the Mail Merge Wizard reverts to Use an
existing list and you have the option to edit the recipient list.
Selecting Edit recipient list opens up the Mail Merge Recipients dialog box, where you can
edit the list and select or unselect records. Click OK to accept the list as is.
Click Next:write your Letter

Write the letter and add custom fields.

•Click Address block to add the recipients' addresses at the top of the document.
In the Insert Address Block dialog box, check or uncheck boxes and select options on the left until the
address appears the way you want it to.

Note that you can use Match Fields to correct any problems. Clicking Match Fields opens up the Match
Fields dialog box, in which you can associate the fields from your list with the fields required by the
wizard.
7. Press Enter on your keyboard and click Greeting line... to enter a greeting.

8. In the Insert Greeting Line dialog box, choose the greeting line format by clicking the drop-down
arrows and selecting the options of your choice, and then click OK.
9. Note that the address block and greeting line are surrounded by chevrons (« »). Write a short letter
and click Next: Preview your letters.

Preview your letter and click Next: Complete the merge.

Click Print to print your letters or Edit individual letters to further personalize some or all of the letters.
 Equation Editor
Equation Editor (Microsoft Equation 3.0) was included in earlier versions of Word, but
was removed from all versions in the January 2018 Public Update (PU) and replaced with a new
equation editor.
The content here describes this feature for users who have installed this update.
Insert an equation with Equation Editor
On the Insert tab, in the Text group, click Object.

2. In the Object dialog box, click the Create New tab.

3. In the Object type box, click Microsoft Equation 3.0, and then click OK.
4. Use the symbols, templates, or frameworks on the Equation toolbar to edit the equation.
5. In Word, Excel, or Outlook, to return to your document, click anywhere in the document.
In PowerPoint, to return to the presentation, in Equation Editor, on the File menu, click Exit and Return to
Presentation.
Edit an equation in Equation Editor
If you used Equation Editor to insert an equation, you can also edit that equation in Equation Editor.
1. Double-click the equation object that you want to edit.
2. Use the symbols, templates, or frameworks on the Equation toolbar to edit the equation.
3. In Word, Excel, or Outlook, to return to your document, click anywhere in the document.
In PowerPoint, to return to the presentation, in Equation Editor, on the File menu, click Exit and
Return to Presentation.