Particles

(I)GCSE Physics
 Models of the atom
In about 500 BC The Greek
philosopher Democritus
suggested that all matter was made
up of tiny, indivisible particles. The
word ‘atom’ meaning ‘cannot be
cut or divided’

In 1803, Thomas Dalton proposed

that atoms were tiny hard spheres.
He further proposed that an
element was made up of identical
Thomas Dalton
atoms all have the same mass but
each different element was made 1766-1844
up of its own type of atom.
 Electrons and sub-atomic particles
In 1897 J.J. Thomson
discovered the electron.

He found that this was a

negatively charged particle
that was much smaller than
an atom.

This discovery showed that

atoms were not indivisible
but were made up of J.J. Thomson
smaller sub-atomic 1856-1940
particles.
 The Plum Pudding Atomic Model
Based on his discovery of
the electron J.J. Thomson
suggested that atoms
consisted of a ball of:
- positively charged matter
- embedded with negatively
charged electrons like the
plums in a pudding
The ‘Plum Pudding’ Model
This became known as the
plum pudding model of
the atom.
 Geiger & Marsden’s alpha particle
scattering experiment
In 1909 Hans Geiger and
Ernest Marsden performed
an experiment that involved
firing alpha particles onto a
very thin foil of gold.

The results from this

experiment would show that Geiger and Marsden
the plum pudding of the atom
was incorrect.
 The experiment
lead container The apparatus is contained
containing an very thin in an evacuated container
alpha source gold foil otherwise the alpha
particles would not be able
to reach the gold foil and
θ the zinc sulphide coating.
The alpha particles cause
the zinc sulphide detector to
evacuated vacuum emit a flash of light.
container
Geiger and Marsden noted
the distribution of the angles
inner zinc
of deflection, θ of the alpha
sulphide
coating particles.
 What was observed
alpha thin metal foil
source

1. Virtually all of the alpha particles went straight through the metal foil.
2. A few alpha particles were deflected through a small angle.
3. About 1 in 10 000 were deflected backwards.
 How the results can be explained
atom
1. Deflections occur because there is
a force between a charged
nucleus and the positively charged
alpha particles.
2. Most of the alpha particles do not
go near enough to the nucleus to
be deflected.
3. Backwards deflections occur when
the alpha particles make near
head on collisions with a positively
charged nucleus.

nucleus (highly enlarged)

 Rutherford’s Atomic Model
Based on the results of Geiger and Marsden’s experiment
Ernest Rutherford suggested that an atom consists of a a
tiny positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively
charged electrons.

Lord Rutherford
1871 - 1937
How their results supported
Rutherford’s atomic model
1. The relatively small number of
deflections indicates that most of
the atom is empty space with only
a very small nucleus.
2. The backward deflections can
only occur if the nucleus is
positively charged and contains
most of the atom’s mass.
3. The ‘plum pudding’ model would
not produce backward
deflections.
Choose appropriate words to fill in the gaps below:
According to __________
Rutherford an atom consists of a tiny,
___________
positively charged __________
nucleus surrounded by a cloud of
________
negative electrons. The nucleus also contains most of the
______
mass of an atom.

This model was supported by the ______

alpha particle scattering
experiment in 1909. In this experiment most alpha particles
passed ________
straight through a thin metal foil with only about 1
in 10000 being deflected _________.
backwards

WORD SELECTION:
Rutherford mass backwards negative
straight positively alpha nucleus
 Nuclear fission
Nuclear fission is the
splitting of an atomic
nucleus.

The process of nuclear

fission was discovered
in 1938 by Lise
Meitner, Otto Hahn and Lise Meitner Otto Hahn
Fritz Strassmann. 1878-1968 1879-1968
 Fissile materials
A fissile material easily undergoes fission.

The mostly commonly used fissile material is

uranium-235.

When this undergoes fission two daughter nuclei are

produced that are called fission fragments.

The process also produces neutrons, gamma

radiation and a considerable amount of kinetic
energy.
 The fission of uranium-235
The fission of a nucleus uranium-235 can be initiated by
its absorption of a slow-moving neutron.
235 1 236
U + n U
92 0 92
Uranium-236 is very unstable and splits apart.

236 144 89 1 0
U Ba + Kr + 3 n + γ
92 56 36 0 0
fission fragments
barium-144 and krypton-89
 Other fission examples
Other fission products can be produced. Their masses
usually have a roughly 3:2 ratio.

236 134 90 1 0
U Xe + Sr + 2 n + γ
92 54 38 0 0
fission products = xenon-134 and strontium-90

Plutonium-239 is also fissile.

239 137 89 1 0
Pu Cs + Y +3 n + γ
94 55 39 0 0
fission products = caesium-137 and yttrium-89
 Fission equation questions
Complete the equations below:

236 143 91 1 0
U Cs + Rb + 2A n + γ
92 55 37
B Rubidium 0 0
239 145 92
C 1 0
Pu Ba + Sr + 2 n + γ
94 56 38
D 0 0
235
E 131 91 1 0
U I + Y +3 n + γ
92 53
F Iodine 39 0 0
This last example combines the uranium-235 neutron absorption
with the fission of uranium-236
 Chain reaction
The fission of a nucleus of
Uranium-235 can be initiated
by a slow-moving neutron.

When this nucleus splits

further neutrons are
produced.

These neutrons in turn can

cause more nuclei to split.

An avalanche effect, called a

‘chain reaction’ can then
occur.
 Nuclear fission reactors
A nuclear reactor is used to
produce substantial and
controllable energy from nuclear
fission.

The thermal energy produced is

used to convert water to high
pressure steam. top view of a nuclear
reactor
This steam is used to drive
turbines which rotate generators
to produce electricity.
Nuclear power plant
Structure
of a
reactor
 What each part does
1. Uranium fuel rods
These contain enriched uranium. This consists
of uranium-238 with a higher proportion of
uranium-235 than is found in natural reserves
of uranium. The fuel rods become very hot and
dangerously radioactive due to nuclear fission.

2. Removable control rods

Made of boron or cadmium, when placed in- uranium fuel
between the fuel rods these absorb neutrons
and so reduce the rate of fission. Their depth is rods
adjusted to maintain a constant rate of fission.

3. Moderator (graphite core)

Made of graphite. This surrounds the fuel rods
and slows the neutrons down to make
absorption of neutrons by uranium-235 more
likely.
4. Coolant
This can be water, carbon dioxide
gas or liquid sodium. This transfers
the thermal energy of the fuel rods
to the heat exchanger.

5. Heat exchanger
Here water is converted into high
pressure steam using the heat
energy of the coolant.
reactor underneath
water coolant
6. Concrete shield
This absorbs the radiation coming
from the nuclear reactor.
Choose appropriate words to fill in the gaps below:
Nuclear fission is the _________
splitting up of the nucleus of an atom
into two smaller nuclei. Energy, neutrons and _________
gamma
radiation are also emitted.
Nuclear ________
reactors use Uranium _____
235 or Plutonium _____to
239
produce energy by nuclear ________.
fission A controlled chain
reaction is maintained by the use of _______
control rods which
absorb some of the _________
neutrons produced.

An _______
atomic bomb is the consequence of an uncontrolled
chain reaction.
WORD SELECTION:
reactors gamma 239 atomic splitting
neutrons 235 fission control
 Nuclear fusion
Nuclear fusion is the joining of two atomic
nuclei to form a larger one.

Hydrogen nuclei undergo fusion in stars to

make helium nuclei
 Energy from fusion
Nuclear fusion is the It is also the energy
process by which source of the hydrogen
energy is released in bomb.
the Sun and other stars.
 Nuclear fusion reactors
Scientists are currently
working to make nuclear
fusion reactors.

The fuel for fusion reactors

is the isotope hydrogen 2
(deuterium) which is found
in sea water.
An experimental fusion reactor in
Seatle USA
 Online Simulations
Nuclear Fission - PhET - Start a chain reaction, or
introduce non-radioactive isotopes to prevent one. Control
energy production in a nuclear reactor!
 Particles

1. Describe Geiger and Marsden’s alpha particle experiment

2. Explain how the alpha particle experiment supports Rutherford’s
nuclear model of the atom
3. What is meant by (a) nuclear fission, (b) fission product and (c)
chain reaction.
4. Give an example of an equation of the fission of uranium-235
5. Draw a diagram showing the structure of a nuclear reactor
6. Explain the function in a reactor of (a) control rods, (b) moderator
and (c) heat exchanger