Lecture Four

Eastern Question

by ZEESHAN FIDA
 Eastern Question

•“That shifting, intractable and interwoven tangle of conflicting interests, rival peoples, and
antagonistic faith that is veiled under the easy name of eastern question.”
•“In the long run, Austria was the main loser.”
•David Thomson: “the settlement reached at the Congress of Berlin had the remarkable
outcome that it left each power dissatisfied and more anxious than before.”
•Definition of Eastern Question:
•The ‘eastern question’ is, in reality, a ‘western question’ or even an ‘international question.’
•“The problem of filling up the vacuum created by the gradual disappearance of the Turkish
Empire from Europe.”
•In brief, it refers to the problems caused by the decline of Ottoman Empire, the growth of
Balkan nationalism and the rivalries of the great powers in the Balkan states.
 The Ottoman Empire: the sick man of Europe

 The Ottoman Empire was built by the Turks in the 15th century.
 During the 19th century, the Empire had declined so rapidly that it was called the sick
man of Europe. In 1683 the Turks failed to conquer Vienna and prevented the Turkish
Empire from spreading to Western Europe.
 It has been called “the sick man of Europe by Nicholas I.
a. The empire was so big and contained so many different nationalities that it was difficult
to govern
b. It included much mountainous country and a large number of Islands. Thus, there was
no effective centralized government and administration was in the hands of local
governors.
c. The Sultan had no military power because of corruption and luxury
d. The growth of spirit of nationalism
 Background of the Eastern Question

1. The spread of Nationalism

a. Nationalism in the Balkan increased because
i. People living in the Balkans had different languages, customs, and historical background but they were ruled
by Turkey. The Turkish rule was not welcomed by the Balkans. Turks ruled them absolutely. Though they
were given self-rule, they were heavily taxed and suppressed with brutality once revolt broke out.
ii. The Turks were Muslims and forced the Balkan Christians to convert to the Muslim faith
iii. The Balkans encouraged by the 1830 and 1848 revolutions to fight for national independence
b. Russia spread the idea of Pan-Slavism
iv. Russia wanted to unite all the Slavs, including Serbs, Rumanians and Bulgers
c. Result
v. Nationalism caused a lot of problems to the Ottoman Empire and Europe because nationalism in the Balkan
was destructive. Its success meant the end of the Turkish influence in Europe.
vi. Once they became independent they tried to ally with the powers and to expand at the expense of their
neighbors, the eastern question became much more complicated.
 2. The decline of Ottoman Empire

•The Ottoman Empire was ruled by the Sultan. It was however, weak, corrupt and
inefficient.
i. The Turkish army had long been declining in effectiveness. The feudal cavalry and the
regular cavalry were in complete decay, and so were the Janissaries (an Infantry corps).
Its artillery and engineers were far below Western-European or Russian standards of
efficiency.
ii. The Ottoman navy was also technically backward
iii. The Turkish administration was now in decline. The Empire had ceased to be a political
unit.
 Moldavia, Wallachia, Montenegro, Bosnia, Albania
iv. The economic life also in decline. She remained unaffected by industrialization
v. Misrule led to much discontent among the Balkan people
Balkan states
 3. Ambition and Rivalries of the European Powers

 Russia
A. National Interests
i. To have warm seaports in the Balkans. So she wanted to control the straits of Bosporus and
Dardanelles in order to control the Mediterranean Sea.
ii. To set up a Slavic union under her leadership by supporting the Slavs in the Balkans
B. Attitude towards the Ottoman Empire
iii. To see the breakup of the Ottoman Empire. So that she could extend her influence in the Balkans
 Britain
A. National Interests
i. To protect her trade from Europe to East
ii. To stop Russia from gaining access to the Mediterranean
B. Attitude towards the Ottoman Empire
iii. To preserve the Ottoman Empire as a bulwark against Russia’s aggression in the Balkans
Russian Federation in Europe(30 %)
 Austria
A. National Interests
i. To gain territories in the Balkans
ii. To stop the spread of Balkan nationalism as she was a multi-racial empire with a large number of
Slavic subjects
B. Attitude towards the Ottoman Empire
iii. To preserve the Ottoman empire to check Russia’s ambitions in the Balkans

 France
A. National Interests
i. To stop Russia’s expansion in the Balkans
B. Attitude towards the Ottoman Empire
ii. To support the Ottoman rule in the Balkans but preferred a weak Ottoman Empire

 The problem was aggravated by the political and economic interests of the great powers. The
different ambitions of the great powers, together with the fusion of Balkan nationalist movements
in the Balkan states, complicated the Eastern question
•Significance
A. The independence of the Balkan States
i. The decline of Ottoman Empire and the growth of nationalism
ii. Great power rivalries

B. The outbreak of First World War

iii. Increased tension
iv. A series of crisis
 Crises caused by the Eastern Question

1. Greek War of Independence 1821-1829

•The Greeks were the first people who revolted against Turkey successfully and established
an independent nation
 Background
a. Discriminative Turkish rule
•For a long time, the Turks had treated the Greeks as a defeated race, and never attempted to
absorb them into their own civilization. They were maltreated by the Turks. They had to pay
heavy taxes. The Patriarch was made answerable for the good behavior of all the Christians
b. No Religious toleration
•The Turkish government allowed no religious toleration yet the Greek Orthodox Church
continued to flourish. The Greek Church preserved the identity of the Greek community.
c. Literary Revival
• Towards the end of the 18th century, there was a revival interest in the ancient
Greek civilization. This literary revival was the cause of the rising sense of
national self-consciousness.
 Rhegas, a famous Greek revolutionary poet
d. Secret Society Association of Friends
• In 1814, a secret society known as the Association of Friends (Filiki Eteria) was
set up in Odessa, with the purpose of spreading this interest in Greek culture
and of arousing the national consciousness and preparing for action against the
Turks, and of liberation of the whole Balkan region from the Turk control.
 1821, it had over 20,000 members: “Turkey shall live no longer, neither in the
Morea nor on the whole earth!”
e. Growth of nationalism and liberalism due to the French revolution
f. Favourable international conditions in 1821

i. The Sultan was having difficulties in the vassal states. For example,
Mehmet Ali of Egypt had built up a powerful fleet, conquering the
Sudan and Arabia with the help of his warlike son, Ibrahim.
ii. There was also uprising in Serbia and Serbs were demanding
independence
iii. Alexander I of Russia appeared to favor the Greek cause. His FM
was Kapodistrias, a Greek while another Greek, Prince Ypsilanti was
a general in the Russian army. He was the leader of the Filiki Eteria
and claimed to have the support of the Czar.
 Course

i. In 1821, the Moldavian revolt stimulated a revolt in the Morea, in South Greece
 Moldavian revolt was crushed
 To achieve independence from Turks in 1821, Ypsilanti, raised a revolt
ii. In 1821, revolts in Morea defeated the Turks and enjoyed their first victory.
The independence of Greece was proclaimed in January 1821
iii. In April 1821, 50,000 Muslims in the Morea were massacred
iv. In April 1821, the Greek Patriarch Gregory was hanged in Constantinople
v. In April 1822, an appalling slaughter of over 20,000 Greeks in Chios, the
wealthiest Island of the Aegean shocked Europe.
 Intervention of Egypt and Powers

a. Czar Alexander I was interested in helping the Greeks, but Metternich and Canning
feared increasing Russian influence in the Balkans
b. However, Sultan’s action changed the powers attitude from non-intervention to
intervention
c. 1826, the Sultan of Turkey asked Egypt for help to suppress the Greek revolt. An
Egyptian army under the command of Ibrahim was landed in the Morea which
ruthlessly wiped out the entire Greek population
d. 1827, the British, French, and Russian governments concluded the “Treaty of London”
and agreed to make a joint military action against Turkey.
e. Austria refused to sign because Metternich would never aid rebels and Prussia followed
Austria’s policy
f. The combined naval forces of Britain, Russia and France destroyed the Turkish-
Egyptian fleet in the Battle of Navarino in 1827.
g. 1827, Britain and France soon withdrew their aid
 Canning died in August 1827
 Wellington who feared Russian influence in the Balkans and was
anxious to preserve the independence and integrity of the Ottoman
Empire
 The result was that Wellington hastened to apologize for the incident
and withdrew
 Russia was left alone to deal with the Greek Question
 First Russo-Turkish War: 1828-1829
i. Still refusing to accept an armistice, the Sultan called for a holy war
against the Christian powers and especially Russia
ii. Russia reacted strongly, invaded Moldavia and Wallachia
iii. In 1828, Russia declared war on Turkey
 Treaty of Adrianople 1829
i. Greece became independent but she had to pay annual tribute to
Turkey
ii. Russia gained Moldavia and Wallachia as her protectorates
iii. Serbia was given autonomy but under the protection of Russia
iv. All neutral ships were to have free navigation in the Black Sea and
the Danube.
 London Conference of 1832
i. the great powers including the Sultan’s recognition of the full independence of Greece
ii. But from August 1830 onwards the powers were preoccupied for over a year by the revolt which broke
out in Belgium
 Significance
•i. Marked the success of nationalism over the congress of Vienna. The territorial status quo of 1815 in Europe
was successfully challenged
•ii. Encouraged the rise of nationalism in the Balkan
•iii. Increasing complication of Eastern question
•iv. Marked the beginning of the breakup of the Southern Turkish Empire
•v. Diplomatic victory of Russia
•vi. Rise of Syrian Question: Mehmet Ali proceeded to take Syria by force
•vii. Dissatisfaction of the Greeks: Crete, an Island of South Greece was excluded
•viii. Increasing Russian attention towards Balkans
 The new Greek government opposed any attempt to Russianize Greece.”
 The Crimean War (1854-1856)

 Background

A. Traditional Expansion of Russia’s need of Warm Water Ports

i. Since the establishment of the Romanov Monarchy (1613-1917), Russia had been
expanding at the expense of her neighboring states
ii. The strategic interest of Russia centered on the straits of Dardanelles and Bosporus
and increasingly protected the southern shores of Russia from attack. Since the Russian
Baltic fleet was hindered by a severe climate in the winter, it was necessary for Russia
to establish a Black Sea fleet and a warm water naval base in the Black Sea.
iii. Britain and France were determined to safeguard their investment in Turkey
B. Strong desire of Russia to break up Convention of 1841
i. Facing defeat by the insurgent Muḥammad ʿAlī Pasha of Egypt, the
Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II, after his requests for assistance had
been rejected by Austria, Great Britain, and France, accepted
Russian military aid early in 1833.
ii. In 1833 the Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi, (Treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi) an
alliance between Russia and Turkey, valid for 8 years was
concluded.
iii. It assured the Russian that the Turks would close the Dardanelles to
foreign warships while imposing no restrictions on Russian vessels
coming out of the Black Sea.
iii. In 1841, the Straits Convention signed by Britain, Russia, France,
Austria, and Prussia closed the Straits to all foreign warships while
Turkey was at peace. Russia was determined to repudiate it that led to
war in 1853.
iv. Queen Victoria of Britain ascribed the war to the ‘selfishness and
ambition of one man Nicholas I and his servants.
 • Immediate Cause: Protection over the Holy Places

i. Conflicts over the guardianship of Jerusalem and Bethlehem incited Russia’s long
existing ambitions.
ii. The protection of these Holy places had been granted by an ancient treaty to France.
 Pilgrims of the Greek Orthodox faith had come to outnumber Catholic pilgrims by
about a hundred to one.
iii. In 1852, Louis Napoleon III in order to please the clerical party in France revived the
old French claim, which the Sultan accepted.
 Russia protested strenuously against any concession to the French
iv. In 1853 the Czar demanded that Russia should exercise a general right of protection
over all the orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire.
v. Sultan was unofficially encouraged to reject the Russian demands by the British
ambassador at Constantinople
 Course
i. In 1853, when the Sultan rejected the Russia’s demand for the right of the Orthodox
Church to protect the Holy Places, Russia occupied Moldavia and Wallachia
ii. The Czar announced that he would hold these territories until the Turks met the
Russian claims
 Ultimatum calling on Russia to evacuate the two territories
iii. Swept on by public enthusiasm; Britain, France sent their ships up the Bosporus
into the Black Sea
iv. Demanded that Russia should withdraw her troops from Moldavia and Wallachia
and recall her ships from the Black Sea to their base at Sevastopol.
 Austria proposed the obvious solution-that France and Russia act as joint protectors
of the Ottoman Christians.
 Palmerstone was eager for neither outcome
v. Supported by Britain, the Turks took a firm stand against the Russians, who
occupied the Danubian principalities (modern Romania) on the Russo-Turkish
border in July 1853.
vi. The British fleet was ordered to Constantinople (Istanbul) on September 23,
1853.
vii. On October 4, 1853, the Turks declared war on Russia and in the same month
opened an offensive against the Russians in the Danubian principalities.
viii. After the Russian Black Sea fleet destroyed a Turkish squadron at Sinope, on
the Turkish side of the Black Sea, the British and French fleets entered the Black
Sea on January 3, 1854, to protect Turkish transports.
ix. On March 28, 1854 Britain and France declared war on Russia.
• Lord Palmerstone: Secretary at War: 1809-1828
• Foreign Secretary: 1830-1841
• Foreign Secretary: 1846-1851
• Home Secretary: 1852-1855
• Prime Minister: 1855-1858
• PM: 1859-1865
 Reasons for Britain, France and Piedmont to enter the War
i. To France, it was a chance to seek national glory.
ii. Napoleon III saw an opportunity to end France’s isolation and to break up the
Holy Alliance by weakening Russia.
iii. To Britain, she was suspicious of Russia’s suggestion of partitioning Turkey.
And to end Russia’s drive towards the Straits once and for all.
iv. Austrians feared that Russia’s advance in the Balkans might increase the
restlessness of Austria’s Slavic populations. But they feared that siding with their
old friend Russia in the Crimea would give France a pretext for attacking Austria’s
Italian territories.
v. At first, Austria declared neutrality.
iv. To Piedmont, it was a chance for her to win their support for the Italian
Unification movement.
 Result: Russia was defeated in the war and an armistice
The new Austrian Foreign Minister, Count Buol, found inactivity too nerve-
racking and the French threat to Austria’s possessions in Italy too unsettling. As
the British and French armies were besieging Sevastopol, Austria presented an
ultimatum to the Tsar, demanding that Russia retreat from Moldavia and
Wallachia.
After Austria threatened to join the allies, Russia accepted preliminary peace
terms on February 1, 1856. The Congress of Paris worked out the final settlement
from February 25 to March 30.
• A further result of the war was that Austria, having sided with Great Britain and
France, lost the support of Russia in central European affairs.
• Austria became dependent on Britain and France, which failed to support that
country, leading to the Austrian defeats in 1859 and 1866 that, in turn, led to the
unification of Italy and of Germany.
 Treaty of Paris 1856

i. Russia gave up her claim as a protector of Christians in the Ottoman Empire

ii. Free navigation of Danube
iii. Moldavia and Wallachia were given to Turkey
iv. The Black Sea was neutralized and demilitarized. Russia was forbidden to
maintain a navy in the Black Sea.
v. Russia was also forced to return Bessarabia and the territory of Kars to Turkey.
vi. The Sultan promised religious freedom and civil rights to his Christian subjects
vii. Turkey was recognized as a European power
 Impacts

•Russia
i. Russian ambitions were checked
ii. Internal reforms after Crimean War
 Alexander II succeeded the throne in 1855
 He clearly realized the political, military and economic backwardness of Russia reflected
by the Crimean war
iii. Not a severe blow to security of Russia
 The demilitarization of the Black Sea guaranteed that Russia’s Black Sea region would not
be attacked by her enemies when Russia was at war.
• iv. Turned Russian Expansion to Far East
 From 1858 to 1860, Russia forced China to cede to her more than 1 million km
•Britain
i. Stimulation of liberal reforms
 “England put her money on the wrong horse.”
 During the war, Lord Aberdeen resigned Lord Palmerston became the PM
ii. Creation of Nursing System
 Florence of Nightingale, “the lady with the lamp”
iii. Postponement of the Second Opium War
iv. Encouragement of Indian mutiny in 1857
•France
i. Establishment of French hegemony
 War, “a triumph for Napoleon III
 European system of states was re-organized through the transfer of Russian hegemony to
France
•Austria
i. Internationally isolated
ii. Austria offended Russia
 Austria was the main loser. Austria offended the Czar by refusing to promise a secure
neutrality, by her ambition to replace Russia in Rumania, and by the threat of declaration of
war on Russia in February 1856
iii. Austria offended the great powers
 Austria offended the Western powers by refusing to go to war, and by her opposition to
Napoleon III’s proposal to revise the European frontiers
 On Europe
A. Unification of Italy and Germany
i. Contributed to Italian Unification
ii. Contributing to German Unification
 By declaring absolute neutrality, Prussia gained the friendship of Russia, Britain, and France
because they knew that Prussia would not become ally of their enemy
 Taylor; “Cavour and Bismarck were the real victors of the Crimean War”
 “Out of the mud of Crimea, a new Italy was made and less obviously, a new Germany.”
iii. Destruction of Russian Hegemony over Europe
 “The complete destruction of Russian hegemony over the continent”
 Start of Franco-British alliance
iv. Eastern Question was still unresolved
 Ottoman Empire continued to decline
 Balkan nationalism continued to grow
 After 1870, Russia broke the Black Sea clause, the rivalries reemerged
• Breakdown of Concert of Europe
i. In future, Austria expected, they were prepared to be revisionist in foreign
affairs
ii. France, under Napoleon III desired a thorough revision of the COV.
iii. Russia was transformed from one of the strongest supporters of the treaty
structure also wanted to have a revisionist policy regarding the Black Sea clause
iv. Prussia became discontented with her subordinate position in Europe
v. Britain became increasingly isolationist in outlook. She was less concerned
about preserving the status quo in Europe
Splintering of the Holy Alliance
 In the past alliance and diplomatic alignment had been concluded
generally for defensive purposes to maintain the status quo. In future,
they were to be formed more frequently for aggressive designs
 In 1861, Moldavia and Wallachia joined to form Rumania
 1878, full independence of Rumania was recognized at the Congress
of Berlin
 The Third Russo-Turkish War 1878

 Background
i. The Sultan refused to keep his promise that he committed in Paris
Peace treaty of 1856, there was widespread discontent in the Balkan
states
ii. Russia encouraged Pan-Slavism in the Balkans while the Turkish
Empire continued to decline rapidly, revolts broke out first in
Herzegovina, then in Bosnia, Serbia, Montenegro and Bulgaria in 1875
iii. The Bulgers defied their Turkish overlords by refusing to pay taxes.
Turkish officials were murdered
 Bulgarian Massacre
• Course
i. Europe was swept with a wave of indignation against the Bulgarian
atrocities
ii. British Prime Minister, Disraeli refused to take any active steps to
protect the Bulgarians. Disraeli’s hands were tied; going to war on
behalf of Turkey might well bring down his government. Disraeli was
under severe domestic pressure. The Turk atrocities had turned British
public opinion against them. Without British, no other western country
was likely to do anything
iii. 1877, Russia declared war on Turkey
•The Treaty of San Stefano 1878
i. The independence of Serbia, Montenegro and Rumania was
recognized by Turkey
ii. A big Bulgaria was created extending to the Mediterranean Sea.
iii. Bulgaria gained the right of self-government.
iv. Russia received Bessarabia
v. Treaty raised the possibilities of Russian control of the Straits and
Balkan Slavs
•Opposition from the Powers
i. The setting up of Bulgaria had alarmed Austria and UK
ii. It was likely to accept a certain amount of Russian control
iii. Britain led the demand for a revision of the San Stefano Treaty basing
her demand on the ground that its terms violated the 1856 Paris peace
treaty
 Disraeli threatened to declare war and he backed up his threat by sending
a fleet to the Dardanelles
iv. Austria was determined to extend her influence and supported UK.
• Before Berlin Congress, Britain and Russia had already settled the key
issues in an agreement between Lord Salisbury and the new Russian
Foreign Minister, Shuvalov, signed in May 30, 1878.
• Russian gains in Armenia were reduced.
• In separate secret agreements, Britain promised Austria that it would
support Austria’s occupation of Bosnia Herzegovina, and assured the
Sultan that it would guarantee Asiatic Turkey.
• In return, the Sultan gave England the use of Cyprus as a naval base.
The Treaty of Berlin 1878
i. Bismarck backed Russia on questions concerning the eastern part of
the Balkans (such as the annexation of Bessarabia).
ii. Britain acquired Cyprus
iii. Serbia, Montenegro, and Rumania were given independence
iv. Bulgaria was divided into three parts
 Bulgaria (Self-Government)
 Eastern Rumelia (Autonomous under Turkey)
 Macedonia was returned to Turkey
v. To support Austria on those related to the western part ( such as the
occupation of Bosnia- Herzegovina).
Only one issue did he come down against Russia. When Disraeli
threatened to leave the Congress unless Turkey was left in possession
of the mountain passes facing Bulgaria.
 “David Thomson; “the settlement reached at the Congress of Berlin
had the remarkable outcome that it left each power dissatisfied and
more anxious than before.”
•Significance
a. Respect of Turkey’s integrity
 Disraeli prolonged the process of extinction of Turkey, the Eastern
question was in a short run stabilized
b. Russian ambitions were checked
c. Partial satisfaction of Balkan’s nationalism
d. British pursued policy of isolationism in the Balkans
e. Failed to solve the Eastern Question
 Disraeli was mistaken in thinking that Turkey was capable of
reform
 No provision was made for a Christian governor in Macedonia
 No protection was given to the Christians in Armenia
f. Sharpened Austro-Russian/Serbian Conflicts
 The Three Emperor’s League (1873-1880) could no longer be
maintained: Russia, Austria, Germany
g. French adoption of absolute neutrality
h. Acceleration of Alliance System
 Russian expansion in the Far East created serious conflicts with Britain and
Japan
 Russian resented Bismarck’s betrayal of Russian interests that led to the end
of the First Dreikaiserbund and the formation of the Dual Alliance of Austria
and Germany
I. Led to WWI
 Sowed the seeds of Austro-Serbian conflict
 Intensified confrontation between Pan-Slavism and Pan-Germanism
 The intervention by the great powers was promoted more by their pursuit of
territorial and political gains than by the desire to maintain peace and BOP
• When Gladstone defeated Disraeli in 1890, he argued that the national
aspirations of the Bulgarians were in fact legitimate, and that, as a
fellow Christian nation, Britain owed support to Bulgaria against the
Muslim Turks.
• As long as the Palmerston/Disraeli view dominated British foreign
policy, Britain could serve as the last resort.

• With Gladstone, this assurance came to an end.