SUMEYA SECONDARY AND PREPARATORY

SCHOOL

Biology short note for grade 9th

 SCINCE;
• What is science?

Science: is the study of the world

Is the fact knowing of something

Is understanding of the
truth
•Science: divided in to two
 UNIT ONE
•Biology and technology
•BIOLOGY: The word of biology comes from
two Greek words, these are BIO-means life,
LOGUS-means study
•So biology is the branch of natural science that
study about life or all living things
•TECHNOLOGY: is the scientific knowledge
used in practical ways in industries, it is the
collection of techniques.
 The significance of biology for human:

•The significance of biology application for

human being is:
•1. production of vaccination against disease
•2. Food and Drink production
•3. Birth control methods
•4.To improve farmers productivity
 SCIENTISTS
•: that study biology called biologists
•When biologists study biology they use
experimentally research to investigate new
information about living things.
•When biologists study life they use:
•1.Hypothesis: is new idea or tentative idea or
statement that explain observed facts and show
new outcomes.
 Contn…
•2.Journals: a regular publication presenting
articles on particular subject.
• 3. Peer review: is evaluation of person’s work
done by the others in the same field.
 1.1 Renowned Ethiopian biologists

•There are many famous Ethiopian biologists

who undertook research activities with
significant discoveries in varies branch of
biology.
• SOME OF THEM ARE:
 1 Dr Aklilu Lemma
•1 Dr Aklilu Lemma and the battle against
bilharzia (schistosomiasis)
•He discovered ENDOD that can kill snails
which are couse
Schistosomiasis (bilharziasis) is a common
parasitic disease. It is caused by parasitic
flatworms which spend part of their lifecycle in
freshwater snails and part in humans.
Contn…
2.Dr Tewolde Berhan Gebre Egziabher

•, an ardent lover of nature

• He discover safeguard of biodiversity and
genetic resources.
Here he was central to achieving an outcome
protecting biosafety and biodiversity and
respecting community rights.
 3.Professor Tilahun Yilma and his
vaccines
• Professor Tilahun Yilma is known
internationally for the vaccine he developed to
help get rid of the terrible cattle disease
rinderpest, and for his work on HIV/AIDS
vaccines.

In the 1980s rinderpest became a major

problem again.
Professor Tilahun worked to
 4.Professor yalemtsehay Mekonnen
• : She is the first female professor from AAU
One of her research areas is the assessment of
the impact of chemical pesticide hazard on
humans. The other area of her research is in
the use of plants as medicine against human
and animal diseases.
 5.Dr Melaku worede:
• He discover to save the genetic diversity of
Ethiopia’s domestic plants. He is an
internationally acclaimed plant genetics
researcher.
Dr Melaku Worede has preserved many
different traditional crop varieties and
developed ways of farming that produce high
yields without commercial fertilisers.
 6.Dr Gebissa Ejeta
• He specialises in plant breeding and genetics.

Dr Gebissa Ejeta did his research on

sorghum
He has helped to develop
Africa’s first commercial hybrid strain of
sorghum. That is
needs less water and so is resistant to drought
and parasitic striga weed, but it also yields
more grain than traditional varieties.
Select the correct answer from A to
D
• 1. Biology is: A the study of matter B the study of life
and living organisms
C the study of how living organisms interact
D the study of the way atoms and molecules react together
2. Bilharzia is caused by: A snails B bacteria C viruses
D parasitic flatworms
3. Dr Tewolde Berhan Gebre Egziabher is a biologist who
researches into: A HIV/AIDS B genetic engineering
C environmental protection and diversity D human
evolution
 1.2 Biological research in Ethiopia
• Biologists, like other scientists, do not work alone. A
biologist needs equipment, laboratories and other
biologists to discuss ideas with and develop theories.
Biologists work in many different areas, from plants to
animals, and from medicine to classifcation and genetics.
Ethiopia has a number of well-known institutions that are
involved in biological research.

Here are some of the institutions that play an important

part in biological research in Ethiopia.
1.Addis Ababa University (AAU) Biology
Department
•AAU is one of the major centers of biological
research in the Ethiopia.
• AAU is not the only renowned university in
Ethiopia. There are many others, including
HU,MKU, JU, HWU, GU and BU. They all
have active biology departments where
teaching and research takes place.
 2.Armauer Hansen Research institute
(AHRi)
• When (AHRI) was first set up in 1969 it was
sited next to a big hospital dedicated to
patients with leprosy and it carried out
research only into leprosy. Since 1996 AHRI
has widened its research to include
tuberculosis (TB}, leishmaniasis, malaria and
HIV/AIDS, leprosy.
 3.Aklilu Lemma institute of Pathobiology (ALiPB)

• The institute sets out to be a center of excellence

for biomedical research and training and have a
microbiology research programme into the major
infectious diseases, they look into vectors of
diseases and how to control them, some of the
biologists are focused on human parasitic diseases
and others work on animal health and disease.
Finally, some of the biologists are carrying out
research into Endod and other plants, which may be
useful as medicines
 4.Ethiopian Health and Nutrition Research institute(EHNRi)

• (EHNRI) is an organization that carries out

research into health and nutrition issues
which affect public health. Its role is both to
identify problems and to help everyone in the
country become aware of how to overcome the
problems and improve their levels of nutrition
and health.
 5.Ethiopian institute of Agricultural Research (EiAR)

• Agriculture – farming crops and livestock – is

the life force of our country.
We must grow food to eat. The EIAR
(IAR) is the institute where biologists with a
passion for improving agriculture and
supporting everyone who cultivates the land or
raises livestock in Ethiopia carry out research.
Biologists working on crop technology have
improved crops like maize, teff and sorghum.
 6.The Institute of Biodiversity Conservation (IBC)

• Biodiversity – the range of living organisms in

an area.
The (IBC) started off conserving the genes of
Ethiopian plants. Now the institute is involved
in the conservation of plants, animals and
micro-organisms in Ethiopia. Current research
in the IBC looks at many areas including forest
and aquatic plants, medicinal plants, animal
genetic resources,
Select the correct answer from A to
D.
• 1. EHNRI carries out research into: A health and
nutrition issues B farming
C biodiversity D soil and water
2. Before it widened its research the Armauer Hansen
Research
Institute studied only: A HIV/AIDS B tuberculosis C
leprosy D cervical cancer
3. ALIPB is world-renowned for research into:
A different diseases and their control B improved
agricultural practices
C human evolution D environmental conservation
 UNIT TWO
•Cell biology- is the branch of biology that
study about cells.
• 2.1 The microscope
Biologists use different tools to help them
study living organisms.
One of the most important is the microscope.
Many important organisms are very small and
biologists need to be able to see them by using
of microscope.
 CONTN…
•KTHE MICROSCOPE. Is an instrument for magnifying
specimens or objects.
•It is helps to observe very small organisms , cell and their
components.
•It is important tools used for: magnification and
resolution
•Magnification: means increase the size of an object
-Resolution: means ability of microscope to distinguish
and scattered between two separate points, it show detail.
resolving power: means how much detail the microscope
is able to show
There are two types of microscope
•1.light microscope a microscope that uses a
beam of light to form the image of an object.
•The best light microscopes will magnify up to
around 2000 times. Light microscopes have
given us a lot of information about the structure
of cells.
•There are two types of light microscope :
•1,simple microscope – eg. Hand lenses
2.copound
microscope: eg. Light microscope
 CONTN…
•The magnification we can get with a light
microscope is limited by the resolving power
possible using the wavelength of light.
Structure of light microscope
PARTS OF COMPOUND MICROSCOPE

•The compound microscope-magnifies and resolves

objects by using of eyepiece and objective lenses.
•1.Eye piece(ocular lens)-used to magnified objectives up
to 10x.
•2.Objective lens-has 4 types:
• Types of objective lens magnification
power
•-Low power -4x
•-Middle power -10x
•-High power -40x
•-Oil immertion -100x
 CONTN…
•3.body tube-holds the eye piece and objective lenses at
the correct working distance from each other
• 4.Roteting nosepiece-holds objective lenses(low,middle
and high power) of different strengths on rotating disc and
used to change objectives.
•5.Coarse adjustment- screw moves the body tube up and
down to locate the specimen.
•6.Fin adjustment-screw is used for the final focus to get a
sharp image.
• 7.Arm –support the body tube and you can grasp to
carry the microscope
 CONTN…
•8.Stage-is used to support the slide containing
the specimen(object) being examined.
•9.Stage clip-is used to hold the glass slide in
place.
•10.Mirror-collect light and direct it to a
condenser.
•11.Base-gives the microscope a firm and steady
support.
 CONTN…
•Total magnification=Eyepiece lens X
objective lens
•Eg.if the magnification of the objective lens is
10x, and the eye piece lens is 10x,find the total
magnification?
• =Total magnification=eyepiece (10) x
objective lens(10)=100x
 Functions of different types of
microscopes

How does a light microscope work?

In a light microscope, a specimen is placed on
the stage and illuminated (lit) from
underneath. The light passes through the
specimen and on through the lenses to give an
image at the eyepiece lens which is greatly
magnified, upside down and right to left.
 Contn…

DID yoU kNow? If you magnified an average

person by the same amount as the best light
microscopes (×2000) they would be about 3.5
kilometers tall. Magnified by an electron
microscope (×2 000 000), the average person
becomes about 3500 kilometers tall
 Advantages and disadvantages of the light microscope

•One of the biggest advantages of using a light

microscope is:
-that we can see living plants and animals or parts of
them directly.
-It is very important to observe living cells.
•-It is readily available to use at any time
•-Can be used without electricity
• -It is not heavy, it can move
-Any biologist working in a hospital, industrial or
research lab ,School and University.
 The biggest disadvantage of light microscopes

•-is that their resolving power is limited by the

wavelength of light.
•-Cannot see died specimen because, this limits
their powers of magnification.
-Also we can’t usually magnify living cells as
much as we can dead tissue, which limits what
we can learn from living cells.
 2.Electron microscope
•Is a microscope that uses a beam of electrons to form an
image
•The best electron microscopes will magnify up to around
2,000,000 times, so it used To see more detail clearly of
non-living object
-As the wavelength gets smaller, the
resolving power is increased.
•-An electron microscope has a resolving power around a
thousand times better than a light microscope, about 0.3
nm. Objects that are 0.3 nm apart can be seen as separate
by an electron microscope.
Contn…
 How does an electron microscope work?

•The image in an electron microscope is formed as electrons,

which cannot be seen by the human eye.
•-The electron beams are focused by magnetic lenses.
•-A series of magnifications gives you an image.
•- However, you do not simply look into an electron
microscope.
• -Complex electron produce the image on a television
screen, which can then be recorded as a photograph
known as an electron micrograph or EM.
-It shows the surface of structures, greater depth of focus,
and a three-dimensional(3-D) view of the object.
 Advantages and disadvantages of the electron microscope

• -It gives us much higher magnification and

resolution.
-This is its
biggest advantage.

-Biologists have discovered

many structures inside cells since electron
microscopes were developed.

-The
 There are several disadvantages to the electron microscope.

• -All the specimens are examined in a vacuum

because air would scatter the electron beam.

-This means it is
impossible to look at living material.
-Some scientists question how useful the
images are because the tissue is dead, sliced
very thinly, treated with strong chemicals and
put in a vacuum before we look at it.
-Electron microscopes are very expensive.
 Contn…
•-They take up a lot of space and are usually
kept in a separate room.
-They have to be kept at a
constant temperature and pressure and have an
internal vacuum.
-They rely on a constant source of electricity.

-Few scientists outside of

the top research laboratories have access to
electron microscopes and so their use for the
 Preparing samples for microscopes
•Tissue has to be prepared and stained in different ways for
light and electron microscopes: for light microscopes
staining is done using coloured dyes to reflect light,
whereas for electron microscopes heavy metals such as
lead and uranium are used to reflect electrons.
For light microscopes only non-living materials need
fixation, while living materials are not fixed: specimens are
always fixed with electron microscopes.
•coloured dyes to reflect light, whereas for electron
microscopes heavy metals such as lead and uranium are
used to reflect electrons.
 Select the correct answer from A to D.

• 1. Te maximum magnifcation of a light microscope would make a

person:
A 3.5 m tall B 35 m tall C 3.5 km tall D 35 km tall
2. The largest single cell is:
A an amoeba B a jelly fish Can un fertilized ostrich egg D an
unfertilized human egg
3. Which of the following is not an advantage of the light
microscope?
A It can be used anywhere without electricity.
B Its resolving power is limited by the wavelength of light.
C It is relatively light so can be carried out into the field for research.
D It is relatively cheap.
 Contn…
•4. Which of the following is the main advantage
of the electron microscope?
A It’s very expensive. B Specimens are
examined in a vacuum so must be dead.
C It needs a constant temperature and pressure.
D It gives a greatly increased magnification and
resolution over the light microscope.
 2.2 The cell

•-Cells are structural and functional unit of living organisms.

•-Means all organisms are made from cells.
•-Organisms which contain a single cell are called
unicellular. eg. Amoeba, Bacteria
•-Organisms that contain more than one cell called
multicellular.
•Eg. Worms , insects, animals, plants.
• -Most cells are seen by using of microscope, but some
cells like unfertilized Bird egg cell seen by human naked
eye eg. Ostrich egg cell.
 Cell theory
•In 1665 , Robert Hooke gained the name of
cell , when he study a piece of bark from tree ,
that are box-like structure and he called cells by
using of compound microscope.
•The word of cells comes from latin word colled
cellula meaning little room.
•But after Hooks work, Antonivan Leeuwen
Hoek viewed living cells with small lenses that
he made.
 The cell theory was stated based on the findings of the following prominent
scientists:

•1. Mathian Schlieden(1838):He was a botanist.

He stated that “All. plants made up of cells”
•2.Theoder Schwan(1839):He was zoologist:
He stated that “All animals made up of cells”.
•3.Rudolf Virchow(1859):He was medical doctor.
•He established the idea that “All cells come from pre-existing cells”.
So Schwann,
Schleiden and Virchow formulated the cell theory w/c stated that:
-Cells are structural and functional unit of
life.
-All organisms composed of one or more cells.
-All cells comes from
pre- existing cells.
 Classification of cells :
•Depend on their structure and complexity cells are
categorized in to two. These are 1.Prokaryotic and
2.Eukaryotic cells
•1.Prokaryotic cells: They do not have a defined
nucleus, because they lack a membrane-bounded
nucleus, organelles-such as chloroplast,
mitochondria…..
•-They are very primitive and probably the cell
come into existence.
•Eg. Bacteria and blue green algae.
 2.Eukaryotic cells:
•They are more advanced and complex cell ,because
their Nucleus and organelles are
•bounded by cell membrane. Eg. All organisms except
bacteria and blue green algae.
•Type, shape and size of cell
•Cell type: there are various types of cells and function
•Eg. Muscle cells-used to relax and contract to cause
move.
•-Red blood cells-used to transport oxygen
•-White blood cells-used to protect body from disease
 Contn…
•Cell shape: there are various cell shape
according to their function: Eg. Spherical, oval,
flat, branched, irregular,
•C. Cell size: most cells are microscopic, except
ostrich egg cell.
The seven life processes that are common to most living organisms are:

• • Nutrition – all living organisms need food to provide

them with the energy used by their cells. Plants make their
own food by photosynthesis, whereas animals eat other
organisms.
• Respiration – the process by which living organisms get
the energy from their food.
• Excretion – getting rid of the waste products produced by
the cells.
• Growth – living organisms get bigger. They increase in
both size and mass, using chemicals from their food to
build new material.
 Contn…
• • Irritability – all living organisms are
sensitive to changes in their surroundings.
• Movement – all living organisms need to
move to get near to things they need or away
from problems. Animals move using muscles,
plants move more slowly using growth.
• Reproduction – producing offspring is vital
to the long-term survival of any type of living
organism.
 Cell structures and functions
•Structure and functions in animal cells
•1.Nucleus- controls all the activities of the cell. It control
reproduction of new cells because it contain genetic
material that tread like structure called chromosome .
•2.Cytoplasm –is a liquid gel which contain all the
organelles Eg.mitochondria,
•-It is the place where chemical reaction needed for life
takes place.
•3.The cell membrane-is the outer layer of an animal cell
that control the movement of substances in and out of the
cell. Eg. O2 , CO2 and water.
 Contn…
•4• The mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion) are
the powerhouse of the cell. They carry out most of the
reactions of respiration, whereby energy is released
from the food in a form your cells can use. Whenever
cells need a lot of energy – such as muscle cells and
secreting cells – you will see a lot of mitochondria.
• 5• The endoplasmic reticulum is a three-
dimensional system of tubules that spreads right
through the cytoplasm. It links the nucleus with the
cell membrane.
 Contn…
•5• The endoplasmic reticulum is a three-dimensional
system of tubules that spreads right through the cytoplasm.
It links the nucleus with the cell membrane.
6• The ribosomes are found on the endoplasmic reticulum
in your cells. They are vital for protein synthesis, the
process by which your body makes all the enzymes that
control the reactions of your cells
•7.Golgi comlex-modifies protiens and distributes them to
the appropriate part of the cell.
•8.Lysosome-contain hydrolytic enzymes that digest worn-
out or damaged organelles as well as engulfed bacteria.
Structures and functions in plant cell

•Plant cell have all the features of a typical or

similar animal cell such as: nucleus, cell
membrane, cytoplasm, mitochondria, EPR, and
ribosomes.
•But, plants have their own structure: these are
•1.Cell wall: is made of carbohydrate called
cellulose, it is the outer layer that surround cell
membren in plant cell, it used to support,
protection and shape to plant cell.
 Contn…
• 2.Chloroplasts: are found in all the green
parts of the plant . They contain the green
pigment called chlorophyll-it is the place
where photosynthesis occur. . As a result of the
chlorophyll they can absorb energy from light
to make food by photosynthesis.
 Contn…
•3.Plastids: has three parts;
•A.Chloroplast-is green and the site where
photosynthesis occur.
•B.Chromoplast-contain yellow and orange
pigment
•-they give color to fruits and flower, They are
non photosynthetic plastids.
•C. Leucoplast-are non-photosynthetic plastids,

They are color less and used to

 • Chloroplasts
• are found in all of the green parts of the plant.
They contain the green pigment chlorophyll,
which gives the plant its colour. As a result of the
chlorophyll they can absorb energy from light to make food
by photosynthesis.
• A permanent vacuole is a space in the cytoplasm filled
with cell sap, a liquid containing sugars, mineral ions and
other chemicals dissolved in water. The vacuole is important
for keeping the cells rigid to support the plant. The vacuole
pushes the cytoplasm against the cell wall, which keeps the
whole structure firm. A permanent vacuole is often a feature
of mature (adult) plant cells.
 Contn…
•Why do cells have organelles? Because to live
the life with living, All process of life take
place by the helping of organelles. Eg. To
make food cell need mitochondria,
chlorophyll…..
 Cell specialization
•=Specialized cells or differentiated cells: means
adapted to carry out a particular bodily functions.
•Eg. Red blood cells-used to carry oxygen around the
body.
•=Unspecialized or undifferentiated cells- means
cells that have no yet assumed their final
characteristics. Eg. When an egg and sperm cell
combine to form an embryo- a single cell is formed –
which is cannot carry out its life process or cannot
have organelles to perform its final functions.
SPETIALISED CELLES IN HUMAN:
•different cells become specialized to perform particular function.
Specialized cells grouped together to form tissue or epithelial
cells.
Eg. -Red blood cells- carry oxygen around body.
• -Nervous tissue-carries information around body.
• -A group of Tissue to form ORGAN such as HEART,
KIDNEY, LUNGS.
• -A group of ORGAN-to form SYSTEM.
•Eg.Of system-include cardiovascular system(heart,lungs,blood
vessels), digestive system.
•A group of system make up of an entire living organism. Eg.
Man
 Cont…
•Different levels of organization with in an
organism are :
•Cells-Tissues- Organs- Systems- Organism.
• Reproductive cells – the eggs and sperm
•Sperm cells-are produced in tests of male. It
contain head, middle piece and tail.

-The head
has acrosome-which has digestive enzyme to
penetrate the outer layer of egg.
Contn…
 The egg cell
•–eggs or ovas are made in ovaries of female.
The egg store food in the cytoplasm for
developing embryo.
•the genetic information to be passed on to the
offspring. Sperm cells are much smaller than
egg cells, but they are produced in their millions
every day.
•
Contn…
 Nerve cells (neurones)
•Nerve cells or neurones are part of the Nerve
cells(Neurons): Are specialized for conduction
of nerve impulse. Neurons-are the smallest
structural unit of the nervous system.
• NEURON HAS THREE MAIN PART:
These are
•1. Cell body , 2.Dendrites, 3.Axone
 Contn…
•1.Cell body-contain nucleus and most cytoplasm of a
neuron. It receive message from dendrite.
•2.Dendrites- are many in number , they are thread like
extension from the cell body ,which receive message impulse
from neighboring nerve cells and transfer to cell body.
•3. Axon-a long nerve fiber which conduct impulse away
from cell body to nearby.
• =Myelin sheath-is fatty substance that surround and
insulated the axon.
The nerve fibers are often covered by a protective myelin
sheath that allows the nerve impulses to travel faster.
Contn…
 Muscle cells
• Muscle cells: used to for movement of the
body, b/c it can contract and relax-which have
lots of mitochondria which provide it energy
to contract.
 Select the correct answer from A to D.

•1. Which of the following is not an organelle within

a cell?
A nucleus B chloroplast C mitochondria D
cytoplasm
2. Which of the following is not one of the seven life
processes that characterise living things? A
movement B language C reproduction D respiration
3. One of these is a tissue in the human body. Which
one?
A heart B stomach C muscle D uterus
 2.3 The cell and its environment

• Your cells need to take in substances, such as

oxygen and glucose, and to get rid of waste
products and chemicals that are needed
elsewhere in your body. In human beings, just
like all other living organisms, dissolved
substances can move into and out of your cells
across the cell membrane in three different
ways – by diffusion, by osmosis and by
active transport.
 1.Diffusion
•Diffusion is the net (overall) movement of particles from
an area of high concentration to an area of lower
concentration.
Concentration is a way of measuring how much (how
many particles) of a substance is in one place.
• Rates of diffusion
Diffusion is a relatively slow process. A number of
different factors affect the rate at which it takes place.
Eg. a big difference in concentration between two areas,
that is called the concentration gradient, Temperature
of a substance , the size of molecule.
 Contn…
•the overall or net movement = particles moving in –
particles moving out.
Always remember that diffusion is passive – it takes place
along a concentration gradient from high to low
concentration and uses up
• Diffusion in living organisms
Many important substances can move across your cell
membranes by diffusion. Eg. oxygen that you need for
respiration passes easily from the air into your lungs into
your blood and then into your body cells by diffusion.
 Contn…
• Similarly the waste carbon dioxide
produced by your cells passes out easily by
diffusion. Simple sugars like glucose and
amino acids from the breakdown of proteins in
your gut can also pass through your cell
membranes by diffusion.
Because diffusion can be a relatively slow
process, individual cells may be adapted to
make diffusion easier and more rapid
 2.osmosis
•Osmosis is a special type of diffusion where only
water moves across a partially permeable
membrane, from an area of high concentration of
water(a dilute solution) to an area of lower
concentration of water(a concentrated solution)
through a semi-permeable membrane.
•-Solvent- is liquid in which a solute is dissolved.
•-Solute-solid or chemical that is dissolved in a solvent
 Contn…
•=Eg. SUGAR(solute) + WATER(solvent) = DILUTE
SOLUTION
•There are three types of osmosis.
1. Isotonic solution: If the concentration of the solutions on
both sides of a cell membrane are the same. Have the same water
potential, there is no any movement, there is no change in cell.
2.Hypertonic solution: If the concentration of the solution on
the outside of the cell membrane is higher than the concentration
of the solution inside the cell it is hypertonic.
• -Means-SOLUTE-that found in the cell is LOWER than
outside of the cell membrane
 Contn…
•-SOLVENT-that found in a cell is HIGHER than
outside of the cell membrane.
•Because of this –Water move outside of the cell.
Cells are get to hypertonic solution.
• -Cell is hypertonic to outside of the cell(get give
water to outside).
-Outside of the cell is hypotonic to the cell(take water
from cell).
• -The cell became shrink,
 Contn…
•3.Hypotonic solution: If the concentration of the solution on the outside
of the cell membrane is lower than the concentration of the solution inside
the cell it is hypotonic.
• -Means-SOLUTE-that found in a cell is HIGHER than outside of the cell
membrane.
• -SOLVENT-that found in a cell is LOWER than outside of the
cell membrane.
•Because of this-Water move inside of the cell. Cells are get to hypotonic
solution.
• -Cell is hypotonic to outside of the cell(cell get water from outside ).
• -Outside of the cell is hypertonic to the cell(give water to the cell)
• -The cell become swell or turgid
 Osmosis in animals
• Osmosis is an important way of moving water
in and out of the cell when needed
if the cytoplasm becomes too dilute
because water is produced during chemical
reactions. The external solution becomes
hypertonic and water will leave the cell by
osmosis, restoring the balance.
 Osmosis in plants
• Plants rely/depend on osmosis to support their
stems and leaves. Water moves into plant cells
by osmosis, making the cytoplasm swell and
turgor, press against the plant cell walls.
.If the surrounding fluid becomes
more concentrated than the contents of the
plant cells (hypertonic), then water will leave
the cells by osmosis. The vacuole shrinks and
the cell becomes much less rigid – it is flaccid.
 Contn…
• If water continues to leave the cell by osmosis,
eventually the cytoplasm pulls away from the
cell walls and the cell goes into a state known
as plasmolysis.
Many of the chemical reactions slow down
and so the plant survives until more water is
available.
But only for so long – if the osmotic situation
is not put right fairly quickly, most plants will
die.
 Active transport
•is energy consuming transport of molecules or
ion across a membrane from low concentration
to high concentration.
- It require energy to transport.
• Eg. minerals ions in soil that pull up by plants,
Glucose move from kidney to our blood.
 The importance of active transport
• By using active transport plants can absorb
these mineral ions needed for making proteins
and other important chemicals from the soil.
Glucose is always moved out of your gut and
kidney tubules into your blood, even when it is
against a large concentration gradient, so this
relies on active transport.
 UNIT THREE

•Human biology and health

•3.1 Food and nutrition
•People, like all living organisms, need a source
of energy to survive.
• In our case this is our food.
We are heterotrophs – we cannot make our
own energy supply by photosynthesis so we
have to eat other living things.
 The human diet
• What is food? Food is anything that is eaten by animals.
It is the source of nutrients and
energy for the body.
It usually comes from animals or plants and is taken into the body
where it is broken down to provide the nutrients needed by the body.
Food is important for body in three main ways:
• To provide energy for our cells to carry out all the functions of life.
• To provide the raw materials for the new biological material needed
in our bodies to grow and also to repair and replace damaged and
worn out cells.
• To provide the resources needed to fight disease and maintain a
healthy body.
 -Nutrients
•are useable chemical compound from which most foods are
composed of:
1. Macronutrients-are food that needed in large amounts
•– Eg carbohydrates, proteins , fats and water.

2.Micronutrients-are food that need only in tiny amounts

• Eg. minerals and vitamins.
•Nutrition-is acquiring of energy and raw materials to maintain
life.
•The two basic nutritional requirements are energy and building.
There are six main classes of food needed
by the body.
• Eg. 1.Carbohydrate, 2. Protein, 3.Fats and
Oils (Lipid), 4.Minerals, 5.Vitamins, and 6.
Water.
 carbohydrate
• 1.Carbohydrates-are food made up of carbon©,
hydrogen(H2), and oxygen(o2).-It provide us with energy
in the form of glucose, for cellular respiration.

Your body stores very little carbohydrate in the form of

glycogen, which is found in your liver, muscles and brain.
The most commonly known carbohydrates are the sugars
and starches. glucose is the
sugar made by plants in photosynthesis and it is vital in
cells for energy. It is also the energy supplier in sports and
health drinks.
 Contn…
• starch is a storage carbohydrate in plants and it
is commonly found in teff and potatoes.
•Glycogen-storage of energy in animals
•Carbohydrate-rich foods are injera, fatira and
honey, Potatoes, rice and dabo
• Lack of carbohydrate in the diet may well be
linked to an overall lack of energy intake, and
known is marasmus.
 Contn…
•Carbohydrate fall into three main types,
depending on the complexity of their molecules:
• 1. simple sugars,
2.double sugars and
• 3. complex sugars.
 simple sugars(Monosaccharides
1. ): They have one sugar unit .
–Their general formula is (CH2O)n,
where n is usually between three and six. Eg.
Glucose, Fructose, and Galactose.
• All of them have the same formula( C 6H12O6),But
have d/t structure.
The best-known simple sugar is glucose, which has
the chemical formula C6H12O6.
• -They have sweet test and soluble in water.
Contn…
Contn…
 2.The double sugars(Disaccharide)

•-Double sugars are made up of two simple sugars

joined together.
•-there general formula is C12H22O11.
•-They have sweet test and soluble in water.
•Eg. Sucrose, Lactose, and Maltose.
•Formation of disaccharide from monosaccharide:
•-Glucose + Fructose =Sucrose(table sugar) +H2O
•-Glucose +Galactose =Lactose(milk sugar) + H2O
•-Glucose +Glucose =Maltose(malt sugar) +H2O
 Contn…
•Monosaccharide + Monosaccharide(by
condensation reaction)=Disaccharide + H2O
• sucrose is one of the most common.
. When two simple sugars join together to
form a double sugar, a molecule of water
(H2O) is removed. This type of reaction
where water is produced is known as a
condensation reaction
Table 3.1 Sources of disaccharides
Disaccharide Source

Sucrose Stored in plants such as sugar beet and sugar cane

Milk sugar – this is the main carbohydrate found in

Lactose
milk

Malt sugar – found in germinating seed such as

Maltose
barley
 3.The complex sugars OR polysaccharides

•-They consist of a long chain of many sugar.

•-They are insoluble in water and have no sweet test.
•-Their general formula is Cn(H2O), where n is
between 200 and 500.
• Eg. Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose, Chitin.
These polymers or complex sugars have some very
important biological properties.

They often form very compact molecules that

are ideal for storing energy.
 Contn…
•The sugar units can then be released when they
are needed to supply energy.
1.Starch is one of the best-known complex
sugars. It is particularly important as an energy
store in plants.
• The sugars produced by photosynthesis are
rapidly converted to starch. Particularly rich
sources are plant storage organs such as
potatoes.
 Contn…
•2.Glycogen is sometimes referred to as ‘animal
starch’.
• It is the only carbohydrate energy store found in
animals.
•It is found mainly in muscle and liver tissue, which
is very active and needs a readily available energy
supply at all times.
3.Cellulose is an important structural material in
plants cell walls.
•4.Chitin-is the basic material of insect exoskeleton.
 2.Proteins
• Proteins are used for body-building. They are
broken down in digestion into amino acids
that are then rebuilt to form the proteins you
need.
Protein-rich food includes all
meat and fish, dairy products such as cheese
and milk as well as pulses, such as white pea,
beans, chick peas and red kidney beans.
 Contn…
• About 17–18% of your body is made up of
protein – a high percentage second only to
water. The feather, horn, antibodies, hair,
skin, nails, the enzymes that control all the
reactions in your cells and digest your food,
many of the hormones that control your organs
and their functions, your muscles are made
from protein.
 Contn…
• Just like carbohydrates and fats, proteins are
made up of the elements carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen, but in addition they all contain
nitrogen. And some have sulphur.

Proteins are polymers,

made up of many small units joined together
by a condensation reaction and a molecule of
water is lost called amino acids. The bond
formed is known as a peptide link.
 Contn…
•There are about 20 different naturally occurring amino
acids and they can be joined together in any combination.

The long chains of amino acids then coil,

twist, spiral and fold in on themselves to make the
complex structures we know as proteins.
•Lack of protein in the diet may cause a number of diseases
known as
•Kwashiorkor. what is needed by the body.
Contn…
 3.Fats and oils(LIPIDS)
•Just like the carbohydrates, the chemical
elements that go into all lipids are carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen, but has less oxygen than
carbohydrate.
•-Lipid-rich foods include butter, beef fat,
sesame oil, Niger seed oil (nug) and olive oil are
all lipids. Any food that is cooked in fat or oil is
also rich in lipids and the energy that they
supply.
 Contn…
•-They are an important source of energy in your diet
• All lipids are insoluble in water, but dissolve in
organic solvents.
-with the many reactions that go on in the
cytoplasm, because the reacting chemicals are all
dissolved in water.
The lipids found in animals are much more likely to
be solid at room temperature than plant lipids.
 Contn…
•There are two main ways in which fatty acids
vary; the length of the carbon chain can differ,
and the fatty acid may be saturated or
unsaturated.
1.In a saturated fatty acid each carbon atom is
joined to the one next to it by a single covalent
bond.
• 2.In an unsaturated fatty acid the carbon
chains have one or more double bonds in
 Contn…
•Unsaturated fatty acids are more common in
plant lipids.
• When a molecule of glycerol combines with
three fatty acids, a lipid is formed.
The molecules combine in a
condensation reaction and a molecule of water
is produced for each fatty acid that reacts with
the glycerol
 Contn…
•saturated fats – found particularly in animal products
such as dairy produce and meat – can cause problems
in your metabolism called cholesterol in blood .
Cholesterol is a substance which you make in your
liver.
• It gets carried around your body in your blood. You
need it to make the membranes of your body cells,
your sex hormones and the hormones which help
your body deal with stress.
 Contn…
• Without cholesterol, you wouldn’t survive.
However, high levels of cholesterol in your
blood seem to increase your risk of getting
heart disease or diseased blood vessels. The
cholesterol builds up in your blood vessels,
forming fatty deposits which can even block
the vessels completely.
 Contn…
• Without cholesterol, you wouldn’t survive.
However, high levels of cholesterol in your
blood seem to increase your risk of getting
heart disease or diseased blood vessels. The
cholesterol builds up in your blood vessels,
forming fatty deposits which can even block
the vessels completely.
 4.Minerals
• Mineral salts are needed in minute amounts, but lack of
them in your diet can lead to a variety of unpleasant
conditions.
Eg.1. calcium (Ca) in your diet to make your bones
and teeth hard and strong. Without it, children develop
rickets where the bones stay soft and cannot support
the weight of the body so the legs become bowed. Milk
and other dairy products such as ergoo and ayeeb are
source of this calcium. Its deficiency caused rickets.
You also need vitamin D (see Vitamins).
 Contn…
•2.Iron (Fe) is vital to make the haemoglobin found in your red
blood cells that carry oxygen around your body (see section 3.5).
•If your diet lacks iron you will suffer from anaemia.
•Iron is found in food such as red meat, liver, red teff and eggs.
•Without iron you don’t have enough haemoglobin in your red
blood cells – in fact you can lack red blood cells – and so you
don’t get enough oxygen in the tissues of your body.
• 3.The sodium ions found in your food and in the salt we often
add to food are needed to survive. Without it, your nervous
system would
 Contn…
Approximate
mass in an Location or role in Examples of foods
Mineral Effects of deficiency
adult body rich in mineral
body (g)
Making bones and Dairy products,
Calcium 1000 fish, Rickets
teeth bread, vegetables
Making teeth and Improper formation
Phosphoru
s
650 bones; part of many Most foods of teeth and bones;
chemicals, e.g. DNA failure of metabolism
In body fluids, e.g. Common salt, most
Sodium 100 Muscular cramps
blood foods
In body fluids, e.g. Common salt, most
Chlorine 100 Muscular cramps
blood foods
Skeletal problems;
Making bones;
Magnesi Green cell chemistry
30 found affected, defects in
um inside cells vegetables
metabolism
Red meat, liver,
Part of haemoglobin
eggs, green leafy
Iron 3 in red blood cells;
vegetables, e.g.
Anaemia
helps carry oxygen
spinach
 5.VITAMINS
•-are organic substances required by the body in order for
it to function properly.
-They are needed
in small amount in the body.
-lacking from your diet in the long term it will
result in a defciency disease.
-Vitamins are divided in to two.
1.Fat soluble eg.
Vit. A, D, E, K
• 2.Water soluble.eg Vit.B-group, C.
Table 3.3 Several of the main vitamins needed in the diet and the defciency diseases associated with them

Recommend
Vitami ed Some good sources of Effect of
Use in the body
n daily amount the vitamin defciency
in diet

Making a chemical in Night

the Fish liver oils, liver, blindness;
A(reti
0.8 mg retina; also protects butter, margarine, damaged
nol)
the carrots cornea
surface of the eye of eye
B1(thi Helps with cell
1.4 mg Yeast extract, cereals Beri-beri
amin) respiration
Sticks together cells
C(asc
lining Fresh fruits and
orbic 60 mg Scurvy
surfaces such as the vegetables
acid) mouth

Helps bones absorb Fish liver oils; also

D(cals Rickets; poor
5g calcium and made
iferol) teeth
phosphorus in skin in sunlight
 6.The role of water
•-it is used in large amount.-it is constituent of
balanced diet, without water life is cannot exist.
•In human being water is found actually b/n 60-
70%.
•-Importance of water:
•1.It is solvent(hydrolysis) properties in the cell,
it is transport medium of: soluble food,
hormone, waste products…..
 Contn…
•2.It has high heat evaporation-that help to lose
too much heat from body, it is used to
temperature regulation.
• urea the main componentof urine
hydrolysis reaction chemical reaction of a
compound with water
nutrition the obtaining of food in order to
survive
 FIBRE IN DIET:

•-Food contain substances that cannot be

digested called roughage(fibre).
•-It is passed out of the body as waste.
•-It is used for:
•To stimulate the movement of food in alimentary
canal(peristalisis)
 To regulate elimination of feaces, b/c it can absorb lots of
water.
 To prevent constipation- means the dry & hardness of
faeces in intestine which difficult to iliminate.
 BALANCED DIET:
•It is one which contain the correct proportion
and quantities of all nutrients(the 6 types of
food) to maintain health state.
•balanced diet taking food from all major food groups
in order to maintain ahealthy body
Contn…
 DIS ORDER OF FOOD EATEN:
•undernutrition too little food is eaten
overnutrition too much food is eaten
malnutrition diet is lacking in important elements
needed for a healthy body. People who exercise regularly are
usually much fitter than people who take little exercise. They
make bigger muscles – and muscle tissue burns up much more
energy than fat.
•Breakfast: bread chick peas with tea or milk
Lunch: kei wot with injera and orange or banana
Dinner: shiro wot with injera and fresh green pepper
 3.2 The digestive system
• -it is the process the breakdown of large food
molecules into smaller and simple molecule
that can be absorbed by the body.

-It is muscular tube running from

mouth to anus. -There are two types of
digestion
1.physical(mechanical) and 2. chemical
digestion
 1.physical digestion
• -is mechanical breakdown of food in to smaller
: by grinding, biting, crushing &chewing of
food by teeth & churning action of the gut.

-it takes place in mouth,

stomach & in small intestine.
 2.Chemical digestion
• : involves by the action of enzyme.
- Soluble molecules through
hydrolysis reactions is catalyzed by enzymes.
• Enzymes are proteins that catalyze specific
reactions.
• Each enzyme has an active site that fits the
reactants of the reaction it catalyzes.

• Enzymes are affected by

temperature.
 Contn…
•-Chemical digestion-take place in mouth-eg by
amylase
•in stomach , small intestine …..
• -Digestive system include: mouth, stomach,
small & large intestine- by the accessory
structure as enzyme, bile, salivary, pancreas.
 A. Digestion in mouth:
•: is the beginning of digestion.
-It is the place where to mix food with
saliva.
• -Both physical & chemical digestion takes
place by the action of teeth, Tongue, enzyme.

TEETH-human have milk teeth

gradually replaced by permanent teeth .
-Most mammals-have four types of
 Contn…
•I.Incisors(I)-front teeth used for cutting away
lump of food.
•ii. Canines©-single teeth in each side used for
tearing & holding. iii. Premolar(P)-is flat
teeth found immediate behind the canines used
for grinding & chewing
iv. Molar(M)-teeth found
at the back of jaws, used for grind & chewing.
 STRUCTURE OF HUMAN TEETH:
•Each teeth has –Root, Neck & Crown.
•-Root-embedded in a socket in the jow bone.
-Neck-narrow region b/n root &
crown -
Crown-covered by hardest structure called enamel-
which is nonliving part of the teeth.
 Under the enamel-layer is called dentine
 The central part of teeth is pulp cavity with nerve &
blood vessels.
Contn…
 Dentition:
•is the number & arrangement of teeth related to its diet.
•HUMAN DENTAL FOMULA:
•-Human milk teeth dentition: I2/2 :C1/1:P2/2M0/0=(2+2+1+1+2+2+0)2=20
•-Human permanent teeth dental formula: I2/2: C1/1: P2/2 : M3/3
=2+2+1+1+2+2+3+3)2=32
•-Dentition of mammals can be summarized by the dental formula(D.F)
WHIHOW:-The type of the teeth one half of the upper & lower jaws.
• Eg.M2/3 –means mammal has 2-molar on one half & the upper jaw &
3-molar on the lower jaw
 Contn…
i. Herbivore teeth-eg sheep D.F-I0/3, C0/1, P3/3,M3/3
=(0+3+0+1+3+3+3+3)2=32
• -B/n the Incisors & canines & the check teeth,
there is large gap called diastema.
• ii. Carnivore teeth: eg. Dog, D.F=I3/3,
C1/1P4/4, M2/3=(3+3+1+1+4+4+2+3)2=42
 III. Omnivore teeth. Eg human

 The chewed food in the mouth is moist by

saliva-which contain enzyme salivary amylase
which digest starch in to maltose.
 Peristalisis-is the movement of bolus(food)
through esophagus by swallow in.
• B.STOMACH: is J-shaped digestive organ, it
contain GASTRIC GLANDS-which secrete
gastric juice which contain:
 Cont…
• i. hydrochloric acid-provide PH-for pepsin
action-it kill microorganisms which are
swallowed with food.
• ii. Pepsin-is an enzyme that hydrolysis protein
in to smaller peptones.
 FUNCTIONS OF STOMACH :

 Digestion of protein food

 Formation of chime by churning action of
stomach muscle-which is physical digestion-
means-by contract & relax stomach muscle.
 Temporary storage of food.
 C.SMALL INTESTINE:
•is longest alimentary canal
•-It contain three major parts: Duodenum, Jejunum &Ileum
•-Functions of small intestine-is mixing of the chime,
chemical digestion & absorption of the end products of
digestion.
•i. Duodenum-is the upper & the 1st part of small intestine
• -The chyme gets mixed with digestive juice from the liver
& pancreas
 LIVER
•-secrets a brownish-green fluid called BILE.
•BILE-breakdown fats in to fat droplets.
•PANCREASE- secrete pancreatic juice-eg.
Amylase, trypsin, Lipase
•-STARCH-amylase Maltose,
•Peptone Trypsin peptides,
• Fats Lipase fatty acid & glycerol
Generally, the intestinal juice contain the ff.

•-Maltose maltase Glucose + Glucose

•-Sucrose sucrase Glucose + fructose
•-Lactose lactase Glucose + Galactose
•-Peptides erepsin amino acid
 III. JEJUNUM
•is middle section of small intestine join duodenum to ileum.
its function-digestion of food & absorption of digested food.
•iii. Ileum-is the final & the longest & narrowest section of
small intestine. Its function is absorption of the end products
of digestion.
•-The soluble productive of food are absorbed in to the
blood stream by VILLI. Eg. Glucose, amino acids, vitamins
& minerals pass in to the blood capillaries of the VILLI.
While, Fatty acids & glycerol enter the LACTEALS.
 D.LARGE INTESTINE
•: It is used for absorption of water, minerals &
vitamins.
•-Undigested foods having no nutritive value pass in
to large intestine as waste products.
•-If undigested food stay larger in it,
CONSTIPATION may occur.
•-If absorption of water is not sufficient
DIARRHEA is occurs.
 Generally the process of nutrition include

 -Ingestion Digestion Absorption Assimilation

Egestion.
 Ingestion-taking of food in to the body
 Digestion-break down of food in to smaller.
 Absorption-up take of soluble food in to bloodstream.
 Assimilation-the usage of absorbed soluble food to the
cell of body for growth.
 Egestion-removal of waste products through ANUS.
 The Digestive health:
•digestive system may affected by:
•-Constipation-if faeces remain too long in the large intestine
•-Diarrhoea-if infection causes the gut to contract more strongly,
then the faeces produced very loose & watery.
•-Salmonella-bacteria cause food poisoning
•-Food hygiene-food born disease: eg. Bacteria grow on food, raw
meat & egg etc.
•To prevent this disease-you have to keep food hygiene.
• -Also check that the best before date stamped on package is ok
Contn…
 3.3. The human respiratory
system
•Structure of human respiratory system
•Respiration: is the process in which energy
is released from the breakdown of organic
substances in the body.
The respiratory system is a vital in order to
get oxygen to oxidize food and release energy
for proper functioning of the body.
Cont..
 The human respiratory system
consisting of
• Mouth: is an organ through which the air
enters into respiratory structures
Nose/nasal cavity: is additional structure
through which the air enter into respiratory
tract.
Nose contains the nasal passages, which have:-
a large surface area,
a good blood supply,
Lots of hairs and a lining that secretes
mucus.
 Contn…
• The hairs and mucus filter out much of the
dust and small particles that we breathe in,
Whilst moist surfaces increase the humidity of
the air we breathe into our bodies and The rich
blood supply warms it.
This means that the air we take in is warm,
clean and moist before it gets into the delicate
tissue of ourlungs.
 Contn…
• Pharynx: is the structure that serves as a
common passage for both food and air
Larynx or voice box: the upper part of
trachea by directing air living the lungs over
the vocal cords.
Trachea: is the wind pipe which is made
from C-shaped cartilage that support it and
hold it open.
The lining of the trachea secretes mucus,
which collects bacteria and dust particles.
 Contn…
• The cells that line the trachea are also covered
in hair-like cilia that beat to move the mucus
with any trapped micro-organisms and dirt
away from the lungs and towards the mouth.
The opening of trachea is called glottis
The entrance of food and dust particles into
the glottis is prevented by epiglottis.
 Contn…
• Bronchi (singular bronchus): are the branches
that arise from the trachea, one leading to each
lung.
Bronchioles: are small tubes branching from
each bronchi in the lung
They are much smaller than bronchi.
Alveoli (singular alveolus): are tiny air sacs
which are used for exchange of gases between the
lungs and the blood capillaries, they are called
functional unit of the lung.
 The lung
• Is the major breathing organ of human; it is
surrounded by membranous structure called
pleuralmembrane.
o The lung is spongy and elastic organ which is
protected by ribs, vertebral column, diaphragm
and intercostal muscle.
o Diaphragm: muscle separating the muscle from
abdomen.
o Intercostal muscle: are muscle that are found
between the ribs and used in breathing.
 How is air brought into the lungs?

• The process of breathing involves the

process of inhalation and exhalation.
The breathing movements are brought
about by two different sets of muscles that
change the pressure in the chest cavity.
 The mechanism of breathing
Inhalation(breath Exhalation(breathing out)
ing in)
Contract &
Diaphragm Relax & become dome shaped
flatten
Intercostal
Contract Relax
muscle
Moves up &
Ribcage Moves down & inwards
outwards
Chest cavity Looks bigger Looks smaller
Pressure Decreases Increases
Inflated (filled
Lung Constricts(defleats)
with air)

The volume of
Increases Decreases
thorax
Cont…
The process of gaseous exchange
 Cont…
• Breathing in supplies us with the oxygen we
need for cellular respiration
when we breathe out waste carbon dioxide is
removed from the body
When the air is breathed into the lungs, O2
passes into the blood by diffusion along a
concentration gradient.
At the same time CO2 passes out of the blood
into the air of the lungs, also by diffusion along a
concentration gradient.
 Cont…
• This exchange of gases takes place in the
alveoli, the tiny air sacs with a large surface
area that make up much of the structure of the
lungs.
The movement of O2 into the blood and
CO2 out of the blood takes place at exactly the
same time
There is a swap or exchange between the
two and so this process is known as gaseous
exchange
 Cont…
• The mechanism of gas exchange in the
alveoli depends on:-
a large surface area moist surfaces
short diffusion distances
a rich blood supply These maintain steep
concentration gradient
 Factor affect breathing rate
•The breathing rate is determined by the rate of breathing
and depth of breathing.
• The normal rate of breathing in adult human being is
12-14 times per breath
Depth of breathing: is the amount of air per breath
Tidal volume: is the amount of air that one can
breathed in & out at normal resting situation
Vital capacity: is the maximum amount of air that
breathed in and out:
The rate of breathing can be affected by

• A. Exercise
During exercise when muscular activity increases,
the breathing rate and depth of breathing increases to
supply more oxygen to release energy for the body.
B. Anxiety
During anxiety the body reacts as it is in danger,
extra oxygen needed to more energy in order to survive
danger, therefore the rate & depth of breathing
increases .
 Cont…
• C. Drugs
Stimulant drugs such as khat and cocaine
can increases the rate and the depth of breathing.
D. Altitude
At places of higher altitude; the level of
oxygen becomes lower &lower. This makes
breathing difficult thus the rate and depth of
breathing becomes higher.
 Cont…
• E. Weight
Excess weight can also affect the breathing rate.
It can be difficult to breathe deeply because of
the fat around the abdominal organs, which makes
itdifficult for the diaphragm & other structures
around the lungs to relax properly.
F. Smoking
Smoking is a habit that directly affects your
respiratory system as well as other areas of your body
 3.4 Cellular respiration
• The digestive system, breathing and
circulation systems all exist to provide the
cells of the human body with what they need
for respiration.
Respiration: is the process in which
energy is released from the breakdown of
organic substances in the body.
 Contn…
• The energy that is used by the cells is stored in
the form of a molecule known as ATP,
Which stands for adenosine triphosphate. This
is an adenosine molecule with three phosphate
groups attached to it.
When energy is needed for any chemical
reaction in the cell, the third phosphate bond is
broken in a hydrolysis reaction.
ATP+H2O→ ADP +Pi
 Contn…
• ATP is formed by the bond between
adenosine diphosphate & a free inorganic
phosphate group (Pi) and the all-important
energy needed in the cell.
ADP +Pi →ATP+H2O
 The importance of ATP to the body
• To build up large molecules from smaller
ones to make new cell material (anabolism).
And
Also break large molecules down into
smaller molecules. ( catabolism )
Anabolism + Catabolism = Metabolism
To enable muscle contract and relax
Provide energy for the active transport of
some substances across cell boundaries
 Types of Respiration

• I. Aerobic respiration
During the process of cellular respiration, glucose
reacts with oxygen to release energy that can be used
by the cell. Carbon dioxide and water are produced as
waste products.
The reaction can be summed up as follows:
glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + energy
(ATP)
Aerobic respiration takes place in the
mitochondria in cells.in presence of O2
• These are tiny rod-shaped bodies (organelles) that
are found in almost all cells.
Cells that use a lot of energy contain lots of
mitochondria
II. Anaerobic respiration
Breaking down of food to release energy without
oxygen
It is a type of respiration that does not use oxygen.
Anaerobic respiration produces far less ATP than
aerobic respiration.
 Contn…
•It also produces a different waste product called
lactic acid.
• The body cannot get rid of lactic acid by
breathing it out as it does CO2, so when the
exercise is over, lactic acid has to be broken down.
This needs oxygen, and the amount of oxygen
needed to break down the lactic acid is known as
the oxygen debt
• After exercise, the lactic acid is oxidized
by oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and
water
Anaerobic respiration:-Glucose → Lactic
acid + Energy (ATP)
Oxygen debt repayment:- Lactic acid +
oxygen → carbon dioxide and water
 Anaerobic respiration in
microorganisms
• It is also used in other organisms particularly yeast
Yeast is a single-celled fungus w/c is one of the
micro-organisms that is most useful to people
When yeast cells break down sugar in the absence of
oxygen they produce ethanol and Co2.
Glucose → ethanol + CO2 + energy (ATP)
The anaerobic respiration of yeast is referred to as
fermentation
Yeast cells reproduce asexually by budding. The
new yeast cells break off to grow and bud
 3.5. The circulatory system
• The transport system is required to supply the
needs of the body cell & remove the waste
products they produce.
The human transport system is the blood
circulation system. It has three elements
the pipes (blood vessels), the pump (the
heart) and the medium (the blood)
 A double circulation
• Human circulatory system is called a double
circulation.it consists:
i. One carrying blood from the heart to the
lungs and back again to exchange oxygen and
carbon
dioxide with the air. This is called pulmonary
circulation
ii. The other carrying blood all around the rest
of the body from the heart and back again.
This is called systemic circulation
 The blood vessels

• o A very important element of any transport

system is the pathways along which the
transport takes place.
o In the human body there are three main types
of blood vessels:-
Arteries, Veins & Capillaries
 Arteries
• :carry blood away from the heart
it have thick walls that contain muscle and elastic fibres
it have a pulse: the pulse is the surge of blood from the
heart when it beats
they have no valves
most arteries carry oxygenated blood ‘except’
pulmonary artery which carry the blood away from
your heart to your lungs
umbilical artery which carries blood away from a
foetus into the placenta
 Veins:
• carry blood towards the heart.
▲ They have much thinner walls than arteries & less
elastic wall\
▲ They do not have a pulse but they often have valves
▲ Most veins carry deoxygenated blood except:
▲ Pulmonary vein, which carry oxygenated blood
back from lungs to the left-hand side of heart.
▲ Umbilical vein, which carries oxygenated blood
from the placenta back to the developing foetus
 Capillaries
• ▲ They are narrow , thin walled blood vessels
▲ It help to connect arteries with veins and
take blood to the tissues & cells
▲ They have no valve
▲ They are site of the exchange of substances
within the body.
▲ Blood from the arteries passes into the
capillaries, which have thin walls & massive
surface area.
A. B. The Human heart
 CONTN…
• The human heart is a bag of reddish-brown muscle that beats right

from the early days of development until the end the

life, sending blood around the body.
It is made up of a unique type of muscle known
as cardiac muscle
The walls of the heart are almost entirely muscle.
These muscular walls are supplied with blood by
the coronary arteries (supply oxygenated blood to
cardiac muscle).
 CONTN…
• The deoxygenated blood is carried away in the
coronary veins, which feed back into the right
atrium (atria).
o Human heart is divided into 4 chambers
The two upper chambers are the right & left
atria
The two lower chambers are the right & left
ventricles
o The walls of the atria are relatively thin, so they
can stretch to contain a lot of blood.
 Contn…
• o The walls of the ventricles are much
thicker, as they have to pump the blood out
through the major blood vessels.
o The muscle walls of the left-hand side of the
heart are thicker than on the right. This is
because the
left hand side of the heart has to pump blood
around the whole body whilst the right-hand
side pumps only to the lungs.
The working of the heart
 contn…
• The two sides of the heart fill and empty at the
same time to give a strong, coordinated beat
Mechanism of blood circulation
Deoxygenated blood, which has supplied
oxygen to the cells of the body and is loaded
with carbon dioxide, comes into the right
atrium of the heart from the veins of the body.
 Contn…
• The atrium contracts and forces blood into the right
ventricle.
The right ventricle contracts and forces blood out of the
heart and into the lungs where it is oxygenated – it picks up
oxygen.
Oxygenated blood returns to the left-hand side of the heart
from the lungs and the left atrium fills up.
The left atrium contracts forcing blood into the left ventricle.
The left ventricle contracts forcing oxygenated blood out of
the heart and around the body
 Valves
• Valves: mechanism in the veins that allows blood
to flow in one direction only.
Inside the heart there are many different
valves.
Their names describe their appearance;
bicuspid (two parts): are found between the
left atrium & left ventricle
Tricuspid (three parts) are valves between the
right atrium & right ventricles.
 Contn…
• semilunar (half-moon):
Diastole is when the heart muscles relax and it fills with
blood.
Systole is when the heart muscles contract and force the
blood out of the heart
The pressure at which the blood travels around our arteries
varies as the heart beats.
o A normal blood pressure is about 120 mmHg/80 mmHg –
the nominator is systolic & the denominator is diastolic
pressure.
o Sphygmomanometer: is an instrument that is used to
measure blood pressure
 C. The blood
• Blood is a complex mixture of cells and
liquid that carries a huge range of substances
around the body
Blood consists of a liquid called the
plasma.
Plasma: - is a pale yellow liquid that
transports all the blood cells & also number of
other things.
 There are components of blood cells
• Red blood cells(Erythrocytes)
They are more in number than other types
of blood cells
They are disc shaped & non nucleated
cells.
They are made in bone marrow, when they
mature they lose their nucleus .
The RBC only live 100-120days so they
are constantly being replaced.
 Contn…
• They are used to carrying O2 around our body.
Because they are packed with a special red
substancecalled haemoglobin, which picks up
oxygen.
Haemoglobin is a special red pigment, a large
protein molecule folded around four iron atoms.
In a high concentration of oxygen, such as in
the lungs, the haemoglobin reacts with oxygen to
form oxyhaemoglobin.This is bright, which is why
most arterial blood is bright red.
White blood cells (leukocytes)
• They are much bigger than the red cells
but they are fewer of them.
They have a nucleus and form part of the
body’s defence system against microbes
They can be classified as:
Lymphocytes– form antibodies against
microbes
Phagocytes-engulf invading microorganisms
 Platelets ( thrombocytes)
• They are small fragments of cells and very
important in helping blood to clot at the site of a
wound.
Platelets have thread like protein fiber called fibrin
for blood clotting to trap blood cells, platelets and fluid
through a complex series of enzymes controlled rxns.
The clotting of the blood prevents from bleeding
to death from a simple cut
It also protects the body from the entry of bacteria
and other pathogens
 Human blood groups
• o There are special proteins called antigens
are found on the surface of all cells.
o They allow cells to recognize each other and
also to recognize cells from different
organisms
o If the cells of an immune system recognize a
foreign antigen on a cell in the body, they will
produce antibodies & it destroy the foreign
cells.
 Contn…
• o A number of different antigens are found specifically
on the surface of the RBC, which gives different human
blood groups.
o The blood grouping system is called ABO system.
o Based on presence and absence of these antigens ,
there are four types of blood groups
o There are two possible antigens : Antigen A &
antigen B
o There are also two types of antibodies:- antibody A &
antibody B
o The below table describe the compatibility of Different blood
groups

Blood group Antigen on RBC Antibody in the plasma Donate to

A A B A & AB
B B A B & AB
AB AB None AB only
O None A and B All groups
• Blood group ‘O ‘is called universal Donor,
because it has no antigens so, it can be given to
anyone.
Blood group ‘AB’ is called universal recipient ,
which has no antibodies can receive any type of
blood
If the blood from different blood groups is mixed
together, there may be a reaction b/n the antigen &the
complementary antibody which makes the red blood
cells stick together, this is called agglutination.
 Two common problems of the
circulatory system
• A. Anemia: it is caused when there are:
Too few red blood cells in the body, or too low
levels of hemoglobin in the blood.
It is most commonly due to lack of iron in the
diet so it is treated by iron rich diet.
B. Hypertension (High Blood Pressure).

• Is considered high if the systolic pressure

is >140mmHg or the diastolic pressure is
>90mmHg
There are a number of factors that can
increase the risk of hypertension.
Many of these factors mean that blood
vessels are likely to be getting narrower, or
becoming more rigid
 Contn…
• These factors include: - increasing
age, being overweight,
excessive salt intake, excessive
consumption of alcohol,
sedentary (inactive) lifestyle,
smoking,
kidney diseases, diabetes and
certain medicines such as steroids
 Treatment of hypertension

• Losing weight Life style

adjustment
using medicines like Lower salt level
in diet & etc
Diuretics: which increase frequency of
urination to decrease the blood volume and
Beta blockers:- these block the nerves w/c
narrow the arteries
 UNIT: 4
• Microorganisms and diseases
4.1. Micro-organisms
Micro-organisms are tiny living organisms
that are usually too small to be seen with the
naked eye, these includes bacteria, viruses,
yeast and mould
Many of microorganisms are very useful while
other cause diseases.
 Bacteria
• Are single celled organisms
They are much smaller than the smallest
plant& animal cells.
They contain cytoplasm surrounded by a
membrane
They have non cellulose cell wall
Some bacteria have flagella to help to them
move
They also come in a variety of different shape
and size
 Viruses
• are even smaller than bacteria
They usually have regular geometric shapes,
and
They are made up of a protein coat
surrounding genetic material containing
relatively few genes.
They do not carry out any of the functions of
normal living organisms except reproduction
They are obligate intracellular parasites
They have either DNA or RNA as genetic
 Fungi (Yeast and mould)
• Yeast are single –celled organisms
Each yeast cell has a nucleus, cytoplasm and a
membrane surrounded by a cell wall.
They reproduce is by asexual budding –
splitting to form new yeast cells.
 Contn…
• Moulds
They are made up of, threadlike structures
called hyphae.
The hyphae are not made up of individual cells
– they are tubes consisting of a cell wall
containing cytoplasm and lots of nuclei.
They reproduce asexually by spore formation.
 The germ theory of disease
• o Germs are micro-organisms responsible for
cause of some diseases
o The development of microscope Anton van
Leeuwenhoek in 17th century helped different
biologists to explain the relationship between
infectious diseases & micro organisms
o The development of knowledge about micro-
organisms is actually related to the theory of
spontaneous generation.
 o The theory of spontaneous generation

• States that living things could arise from

non-living things spontaneously. This theory is
opposed by many biologists & a French
biologist Louis Pasteur disproved it finally by
using an S- shaped flask that traps dust &
microorganisms.
 Contn…
• Pasteur was convinced that any growths that
appeared –
for example, mould on food as it decayed – came
from microscopic organisms already present in the air.
First he showed that the theory of spontaneous
generation was wrong. Then he showed that if he
boiled broth and sealed the container, the broth would
stay clear until he introduced material which had been
exposed to the air.
 Contn…
• At this point micro-organisms grew and
the broth turned cloudy
Pasteur went on to identify the micro-
organisms that caused a number of diseases
including anthrax, rabies and diphtheria.
 Control of microorganisms
Sterilization is the killing of all micro-
organisms in a material or on the surface of an
object, making it safe to handle. These include
the use of:
High temperatures or heat
It is highly efficient means of sterilization
 Contn…
• o Autoclaving: it involves the killing of
microorganisms by boiling in water at 121 °C.
under high pressure for 15–45 minutes of
‘cooking’ at these temperatures
o Ultra high temperature (UHT) is a way of
treating food to kill all the micro-organisms on
it.
The temperatures used range from around 135
°C to 150 °C
 Contn…
A.o Dry heat sterilization: Dry heat, over a long time, kills
all micro-organisms. Special ovens used in microbiology
use temperatures of 171 °C for an hour, or 160 °C for
2hours,.
Incineration – burning substances at high temperatures
in the air – also kills micro-organisms.
• o Pasteurization: it involves boiling or heating of milk,
beer and other foodstuffs at 71.6 °C for at least 15
seconds or 62.9 °C for 30 minutes.
 A chemical approach to controlling
micro-organisms
• o Possible pathogens can be attacked chemically in
a number of ways .for e.g.
A disinfectant is a chemical or physical agent
that is applied to an inanimate object to kill
microorganisms.
Disinfection means reducing the number of living
micro-organisms present in a sample
This method discovered by Joseph Lister
some of example of disinfectant include: house hold
bleach, Dilute bleach and calcium hypochlorite
 Contn…
• Antiseptics: are chemical agents that are
applied to living tissue to kill micro-organisms
–disinfectants for the skin.
It help to protect entrance of germs if the
skin is cut or wounded.
 Growing of microorganisms
• Micro-organisms can be grown in
laboratories under controlled condition.
It is important for various purposes; these
include:
To know how to killed them
To develop vaccines
To identify their useful & harmful aspects
 Contn…
• For growing microorganism’s biologist need to
fulfill the following precondition:
Isolating type of microorganisms to be
studied
Developing suitable nutrient like agar and
broth
Agar: is a solid nutrient medium which is
extracted from red algae
Broth: is a liquid nutrient medium
 Antibiotics
A.Drugs which kill bacteria but do not harm
human cells
Penicillin was the first antibiotic to be
discovered
 IMMUNE SYSTEM
• Immune system the system in the body which
protects the body against invading
microorganisms and foreign proteins.
Like all living cells, pathogens carry unique
protein molecules called antigens on their cell
surfaces.
When a pathogen gets into the body the antigens
on the surface stimulate a response by the immune
system.
 Contn…
• White blood cells (lymphocytes) produce
antibodies to disable the pathogen. Other white
blood cells (the phagocytes) then engulf and
digest the disabled pathogens.
Once someone have had a disease, the
immune system ‘remembers’ the antigen and
the right antibody to deal with it.
 IMMUNITY
• IMMUNITY-Is the resistance of the body against disease.
-It is grouped to NATURAL & ARTIFITIAL
• A.Natural immunity-is grouped to ACTIVE & PASSIVE
immunity
• -It is inherited immunity naturally.
• 1.ACTIVE NATURAL immunity-is ability of body to
produce its own antibodies to fight disease.
• 2.PASSIVE NATURAL immunity-IS IMMUNITY GAIN
FROM MOTHER TO CHILD, until the body develops its
own antibodies.
 B.ARTIFICIAL IMMUNITY
• -our body has its own immune to defend
against disease, but if immune of our body
fails to defend against disease, it treated by
artificial acquired immunity.
• -It is given in the form of DRUGS.
 ARTIFITIAL IMMUNITY-is grouped in to:

• 1.ACTIVE ARTIFICIAL IMMUNITY—involves

introducing of weakened or dead pathogen in the body ,
which stimulated the body to produce its own antibody.
• -It has long lasting effect on the body.
• 2.PASSIVE ARTIFICIAL IMMUNITY-it involves
giving specific antibodies in the form of injection.
• -It provide a high type of resistance but last only for short
time.
 vaccination(immunization) :
• o is the use of dead or weakened strains of pathogens
to produce immunity to dangerous diseases
o the vaccination work through the following ways
a weak or dead form of the infecting organism is

put into the body by injection or by mouth

once in the body, the white blood cells respond by

producing antibodies
If the living micro-organism enters the body in

the future, antibodies are produced very rapidly to

destroy it and so the disease does not develop.
 4.2. Diseases
•  Disease is any form of disorder in or on the
body distorts it’s normal functioning
 Some of the most commonly known
diseases which are caused by pathogenic
organisms among them include:
 i. Tape worm(cestoda)

• o Flat shaped worm that parasitizes the wall of

intestine of humans
o They have no digestive system & but have
cuticle to absorb nutrients
o The most common are beef tape worm(Taenia
saginata) & the pork tapeworm(Taenia solium)
o They have complex life cycle which involves
at least two different hosts.
 Contn…
•  Transmission :eating improperly cooked or raw meat
 Symptoms: feeling weakness, weight loss, segments of tape
worm in feaces
 Control & prevention: avoid eating raw meat, use antiworm
drug & proper disposal of feaces
 Life cycle of beef tape worm
 Cows raised in unsanitary conditions may contain cysticerci
‘bladder worms’ embedded in their muscles.
 These consist of a capsule containing a scolex. When a
bladderworm is ingested (e.g. in undercooked beef), The scolex
turns inside out and attaches by suckers and hooks to the wall of
intestine.
 Contn…
•  It then begins to produce buds, called
proglottids, which remain attached to each other
for a time and, as they mature, each develops both
male and female sex organs.
 The most mature proglottids eventually break
loose and are passed out in the faeces. If
conditions are
such that cows get access to the human faeces,
they take in the eggs and the whole cycle starts
again.
 ii. Tuberculosis
• It is caused by a bacterium called
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
It can affect anyone of any age, but People with
weakened immune systems (such as people
suffering from HIV/AIDS) are at increased risk
 Transmission :
Droplet infection, but need prolonged exposure
to someone with TB for infection to occur.
work in overcrowded conditions
 Contn…
•  Symptoms
Some people may not have obvious symptoms (asymptomatic),
however the symptoms of TB include:
 a low-grade fever,  night sweats,
 fatigue,  weight loss and
 a persistent cough
 Control and prevention
 In social terms avoiding overcrowded conditions
 Good ventilation
 Covering the nose &mouth during coughing
 Treatment
 people with active TB disease must complete antibiotic for
four months or more vaccination
 The role of vectors in disease
•  A vector is an organism that transmits disease-
forming micro-organisms from one host to another
 well-known example is the Anopheles mosquito,
which carries the malarial parasite
iii. Mosquitoes and malaria
 Malaria is a disease where mosquitoes are the
vector
 The mosquito vector is the female Anopheles
mosquito
 The disease itself is caused by the single-celled
parasite Plasmodium
 Contn…
•  It spends part of its life cycle in a mosquito and
part in the human body
 Life cycle
 Female needs two meals of human blood to
provide protein for her developing egg and this is
when she passes on her load of malarial parasites.
 If the first feed the mosquito takes is from
someone infected with malaria, the Plasmodium
parasites called Plasmodium falciparum remain in
her mouthparts
 Contn…
•  the next time she feeds, the Plasmodium parasites pass
into the blood of the victim along
with the saliva – and someone else is infected with malaria
 symptoms :These include fevers, chills and sweats
 Control and prevention: Methods of controlling malaria
must involve controlling the Anopheles mosquitoes. this can
be done by: Using mosquito repellents
 Having screens on doors and windows
 insecticide-treated mosquito nets
 Proper disposal of sewage’
 Minimize any opportunities for the mosquitoes to breed
 iv. Gastroenteritis/acute watery
diarrhoea (AWD)
• Intestinal infection causing acute watery diarrhea
Some of the causative organisms include rotaviruses, the
bacteria Salmonella and Escherichia coli (E. coli), or the
protoctists Giardia and Amoeba.
transmission
 eating contaminated food or water
 prepares or handles food without washing their hands
after going to the toilet
 poor sanitation
 poorly cooked and raw eggs if they are infected with
bacteria such as Salmonella
 Contn…
• symptoms
 violent abdominal cramps and pain
 feeling nauseous, vomiting or often both
 watery diarrhoea which does not usually
have blood in it
 slight fever
 general muscle aches and headache
Control and prevention
 Good personal hygiene  Avoid eating
undercooked or raw food
 v. Cholera
• It is caused by bacteria called Vibrio cholera & it infects
intestine
Transmission: eating or drinking food or water
contaminated by the faecal waste of an infected person
Symptoms : include the pale, watery diarrhoea, vomiting
and dehydration, muscle scramps
Treatment : taking more fluid to replace the lost through
diarrhoea &antibiotics, rehydration salt(ORS)
Control and prevention: avoid consumption of uncooked
food
 Proper disposal of feaces , Taking cholera vaccine
 Good personal hygiene and environmental sanitation
 vi. Typhoid (Typhoid fever)
• is a bacterial infection caused bacterium called
Salmonella typhi – typhoid only affects humans
transmission : Like other diarrhoea diseases
they are spread by eating foods or drinking
water contaminated by faeces from an infected
individuals
symptoms: it may include :A very high fever –
39–40 °C, A painful abdomen
 Contn…
• Sore throat and headache, an enlarged spleen and
liver , Constipation or diarrhoea
Treatment: antibiotics are used as a very effective
treatment. plenty of fluids to replace the ones they lose
Control and prevention: careful hand washing after
toilet visits,
 clean drinking water and good sewage disposal
 good food hygiene in kitchens and care in eating raw
or lightly cooked foods
vii. Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)

•  STDs are Infectious diseases spread by

sexual contact it is also known as venereal
diseases(VD)
 are a growing problem in Ethiopia –partly
because sexual activity often starts relatively
young
 the most commonly known STDs are:
 A. Gonorrhea (gonococcal infection)

• o Is caused by the bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae.

o Gonorrhea germs are found in the mucus areas of
the body (the vagina, penis, throat and rectum).
o Transmission :It is spread through sexual contact,
Having unprotected sex, having many sexual partner
o Symptoms: burning sensation while urinating and
a yellowish-white discharge from the genital organ.
 Contn…
• o If a pregnant woman has untreated gonorrhea,
she can pass the infection on to her baby result in
blindness
o Treatment: it can be treated effectively in the
early stages using antibiotic
o Prevention& control :
 Infected individual do not have sex until your
course of treatment is completed.
 Use a male or female condom
 Be faithful to sexual partner.
 B. Syphilis

• Is bacterial infection, caused by the spiral-shaped

Treponema pallidum
Any sexually active person can be infected
Transmission :like gonorrhea It is spread through sexual
contact
It is congenital syphilis, which is spread from mother to
foetus. This can cause very serious problems
for the baby when it is born.
Symptoms: Syphilis progresses in distinct stages
 The symptoms occur in stages called primary,
secondary and tertiary (late)
 Contn…
•  Primary stage (the first six weeks): painless sores around reproductive
organ, rectum & mouth.
• Untreated the disease then goes into a long quiet phase
 Tertiary stage (late syphilis):
Involve illness in the skin, bones, central nervous system and heart.
It causes severe and irreversible problems that cannot be treated successfully.
If a pregnant woman has untreated syphilis she may transmit the disease to
her unborn child. This may
result in death or deformity of the child.
 treatment t:is treated easily with antibiotics such as penicillin or
tetracycline
 Pregnant women can be treated with antibiotics to cure them and protect
their baby
 Prevention& control: similar with gonorrhea
 C. Chancroid
•  It is a bacterial STD that is caused by the
bacterium Haemophilus ducreyi
 It is more commonly seen in men than in women.
 Transmission : having sex with an infected
person & increase risk of becoming HIV-positive
 Symptoms:
 The first symptoms of chancroid are sore
ulcerations on the genitals, particularly penis, it is
soft and
filled with pus.
•  The second stage of the infection is that the
lymph glands in the groin also become infected,
 Permanent loss of penis
 Treatment : it can be treated easily with a
dose of antibiotics
 Prevention & control:
 be faithful sexual partner
 Use a male or female condom
 Good genital hygiene & male circumcision
  Using medicines correctly
• Traditional medicines are very &alternative
form medicine in developing countries like
Ethiopia
o It is often holistic, based on treating the
whole patient, but limiting their dose is very
important.
o It is based on extracts of plants including
herbs and spices.
 Modern medicines
• are responsible for cure various diseases &made in very
carefully controlled doses
 The most common include: antibiotic & vaccine
 However care should be taken while using modern
medicine: so the following precaution should
be considered:
 Do not take more than you are prescribed,
 Do not take less than you are given
 Make sure you finish taking all the medicine
 Follow the instruction if not antibiotic-resistant
bacteria may evolve which can be very serious indeed
 4.3. HIV and AIDS
• Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
(AIDS) is the medical term for a combination
of illnesses that result when the immune
system is weakened or destroyed.
It is caused by Human Immuno deficiency
Virus (HIV), a virus that attacks the immune
system.
 Contn…
• Transmission:
sexual intercourse which is un protected
It can pass from a mother to her baby in the womb,
during birth or when she breastfeeds
Infected blood on needles used for injecting illegal
drugs, or knives used for female genital mutilation.
Symptoms
Patients often have few symptoms to begin with but
eventually their weakened immune system means
they get many diseases.
 contn…
• Treatment
Antiretroviral drugs can slow down the progress of
HIV/AIDS and protect unborn babies from
infection.
The sooner people can start taking antiretroviral after
infection, the longer they will stay healthy.
Prevention & control
 It can be controlled by ABC rule means that :
 A:abstain from sex
 B: be faithful to sexual partner
 C: condom use
  HIV and the immune system

•  There are two main types of white blood

cells in the immune system. these are:
 T-cells actually bind to the antigens on the
invading micro-organism and destroy it.
 B-cells make antibodies which bind to the
antigen and destroy it.
 Contn…
•  HIV attacks the T-cells of immune system.
It gets inside them and so they can no longer
work.
 As more T-cells are invaded by the virus,
the immune system is less and less effective.
 This is why people with HIV/AIDS get so
many other infections
  Stigma and discrimination
•  Stigma is a mark of disgrace on people
with HIV, while discrimination is an act of
neglecting some from the group or other.& are
the most serious cases that affects people living
with HIV/AIDS
Care and support
It is important for people living with HIV/AIDS
since it helps them live longer & healthier.
 Unit 5: Classification

•5.1. Principles of classification

On Earth today there are many types of living things. This great
variety of life is called biodiversity.
Classification: is grouping of similar living things.
Taxonomy : is study of classification of organisms(Greek, taxis-to
arrange , nomos-law)
Need for classification
Biologists classify living things for the following reasons:
To simplify their study.
To bring order out of chaos or confusion
To try to understand how life originated.
 What is a species?
• A group of organisms that can breed
successfully with one another to produce
fertile offspring.
 How are living things classified?

• Living things are classified according to how similar

they are
One example is animals that are put in a group together
because their limbs are built on the same basic plan.
The limbs of a bat, horse, bird, human and whale all
have the same basic pattern though they are used in different
ways these limbs are called homologous structures. (Similar
structure with d/t function).
Today there are more sophisticated ways of comparing
organisms. The fundamental chemicals of life –such as
DNA, RNA and proteins – are found in almost all organisms
 The classification system
• ▲ Taxonomy is The process of classifying living
organisms
▲ Taxa category in classification
▲ The main taxonomic categories are kingdom, phylum (or
for plants, division), class, order, family, genus and species.
The largest groups into which living organisms are
divided are the kingdoms.
Kingdoms are subdivided into phyla,
Each phylum into classes, each class into orders,
Each order into families, each family into genera and
each genus into species.
The species is the smallest unit of classification
 Naming living things
• Different method of classification were introduced by different
biologists at different times:
Aristotle: Greece a philosopher .who tried to create a
classification system for the living world, and grouped animals
by: animals that live on land’ and ‘animals that live in water
The modern classification method is introduced by Swedish
botanist Carl Linnaeus in 18th century.
He developed the binomial system of nomenclature for
organisms
He published in a book called The System of Nature
Binomial means two names. The two names of an
organism are in Latin
Simple rules for writing scientific names

• The first name is the name of the genus

name & it is starts with capital letter. e.g.
Homo sapiens,
The second name is the name of a species
& it is written with a small letter.
The two names are underlined when
handwritten or in italics when printed.
Table 5.1 Examples of scientific names of
some common organisms

common name Scientific name

Human beings Homo sapiens
A dog Canis familiaris
A housefly Musca domestica
Domestic cat Felis domesticus
Maize Zea mays
Bean Phaseolus vulgaris
Lion Panthera leo
 Living things are classified and named for the following
main reasons.

• To create an internationally accepted way

of referring to a particular living thing.
To avoid confusion created by different
languages.
To help in simplifying classification and
study of living things.
 Contn…
Categori
Human Honeybee Teff Mashroom
es
Kingdom Animalia Animalia Plantae Fungi
Angiospermoph
Phylum Chordata Arthropoda Basidiomycot
yta
Class Mammalia Insecta Liliopsida Basidiomycete

Order Primates Hymenoptera Cyperales Agaricales

Family Hominidae Apidae Poaceae Agaricaceae

Genus Homo Apis Eragrostis Agaris

 5.2. The five kingdoms

• ▲ A kingdom is the largest taxon and consists of all the

other taxa. In the modern classification, there
are five kingdoms namely:
Monera (bacteria) Protista Fungi
Plantae Animalia
This system of classification is known as the five-
kingdom system
Viruses are not classified in any of the above
kingdom. This is because viruses do not have all the
seven characteristics of life, although most scientists
now classify them as living organisms.
 1. Kingdom Monera

• The representative groups are Eubacteria (true

bacteria) & the blue-green algae (Cyanobacteria).
They are unicellular & prokaryotic (have no
distinctive nucleus).
They are all microscopic and they reproduce by
simply splitting in two(binary fission)
They have either autotrophic or heterotrophic mode
of nutrition
Examples include Mycobacterium tuberculosis and
Haemophilus ducreyi which are pathogenic while others
are useful.
 2. Kingdom Protista
• Consists usually unicellular & eukaryotic ( do have nucleus)
they include plant-like organisms that can move around and animal-like
organisms that cannot move
Representative groups of this kingdom are subkingdom protozoa&
subkingdom algae
Subkingdom protozoa
They are microscopic & have no chloroplasts
They live as parasite or free living
Have locomotory structure. e.g. Amoeba: pseudopodia , Paramecium:
cilia
subkingdom algae
They are photosynthetic & eukaryotic
They live either in aquatic habitat or on land
They have undifferentiated body called thallus.
E.g. Dinoflagellates, red algae & green algae
 3. Kingdom Fungi
• Fungi are eukaryotic and usually multicellular.
They are heterotrophic
Many fungi are saprotrophs, which means they feed on dead material.
They play a vital role within ecosystems as decomposers
• Examples of this type of fungus are Rhizopus ,Mucor and Penicillium
They can be parasites, feeding on living organisms. Such as Candida
albicans (thrush) and Tinea pedis (athlete’s foot) affect people and
other animals.
Some fungi are mutualists. This means they live in close association
with another organism and both benefit. Examples are lichens, which are a
combination of a fungus and green algae
Mycorrhizae, an association between a fungus and the roots of a plant.
There are also single celled fungi like yeast.
 4. Kingdom Plantae
• The plants – includes a great variety of organisms, which range
from tiny mosses to giant trees & 80% of these are flowering plants
The main characteristics of all plants include
They have eukaryotic cells.
They are multicellular organisms
They contain chlorophyll and carry out photosynthesis.
They are predominantly land dwelling.
Their cell wall composed of cellulose
Most have a waxy cuticle that helps to prevent drying out
The kingdom is split into a number of divisions. Plant divisions
are the same as animal phyla. The four most important divisions are:
A. Division Bryophyta (mosses and liverworts)

• They are the simplest land plants.

They do not have a true leave , stem & root system
They are non-vascular (do not have xylem and phloem).
The best examples of bryophytes are mosses like Etodon
concinnus,and Funaria species.
A moss plant has
A simple, slender stem.
They also have thin simple leaves
Also have simple root-like structures called rhizoids and attach the
mosses to the
soil & used for absorption of water.
The other example is the liverworts, which only grow in very wet
places.
Bryophytes are commonly found in rainforests and at high altitudes on
mountains
 B.Division Pteridophyta (Filicinopyta)-
ferns
B. They have true leaves, stems and roots.
-Fern stems have rhizomes, which grow horizontally just below the surface
of the soil.
-They have vascular tissue
-They have large prominent leaves called fronds
-Their spore produced in the fronds &dispersed by wind
-They reproduce by alternation of generation(the sporophyte is well
developed their gametophyte stage is reduced)
most ferns live in damp, shady places – they are very common in tropical
rainforests
However, some ferns – such as Pteridium spp (commonly known as
bracken) can grow and do well in full sunlight.
Another example of a pteridophyte is the fern Dryopteris spp.
C. Spermatophytes(seed-bearing plants )
•