Unit 4

Power Plants
M.SACHIDHANANDAM
ASST PROFESSOR
SRM IST
KATTANKULATHUR 1
 Classification of Power plants
❑ Power plants using ❑ Power plants using Non-
conventional (non- conventional(renewable)
renewable) sources of sources of energy
energy
• Hydro electric(Hydel) power
• plant
Steam power plant
• Solar thermal power plant
• Diesel power plant
• Wind powered
• Gas power plant
generation(aerogeneration)
• Nuclear(Atomic) power plant
• Wave power plant
• Tidal power plant
• Geothermal power plant
• Bio-mass power plant
• Oceanthermal power plant
HYDRO POWER
PLANT
 What is Hydropower
• Hydropower refers to energy, mostly electric,
which is derived from water in motion.
• This power is harnessed and used to drive
mechanical devices.
• The main advantage of this form of energy is
that it is clean and renewable.
• Hydropower plants are actually based on a
rather simple concept -- water flowing through a
dam turns a turbine, which turns a generator.
 HOW DO HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANTS
•
WORK?
Hydroelectric and coal-fired power plants produce
electricity in a similar way.
• In both cases a power source is used to turn a propeller-
like piece called a turbine, which then turns a metal shaft
in an electric generator, which is the motor that produces
electricity.
• A coal-fired power plant uses steam to turn the turbine
blades; whereas a hydroelectric plant uses falling water
to turn the turbine.
• The most important part of the hydroelectric power plant
is the dam, which acts as the water reservoir.
 HYDRO POWER PLANT
• In hydroelectric power
plants the potential
energy of water due to
its high location is
converted into
electrical energy.
• The total power
generation capacity of
the hydroelectric
power plants depends
on the head of water
and volume of water
flowing towards the
water turbine. 6
• The hydroelectric power
plant, also called as dam
or hydro power plant, is
used for generation of
electricity from water on
large scale basis.
• The dam is built across
the large river that has
sufficient quantity of
water throughout the
river.
• In certain cases where
the river is very large,
more than one dam can
built across the river at 7
different locations.
COMPONENT OF HYDROELECTRIC
POWER PLANT

8
The basic components of a conventional hydropower plant are:
•Dam - Most hydropower plants rely on a dam that holds back
water
•Intake - Gates on the dam open and gravity pulls the water
through the penstock, a pipeline that leads to the turbine.
•Turbine - The water strikes and turns the large blades of a turbine,
which is attached to a generator above it by way of a shaft.
•Generators - As the turbine blades turn, so do a series of
magnets inside the generator. Giant magnets rotate past copper
coils, producing alternating current
•Transformer - The transformer inside the powerhouse takes the
AC and converts it to higher-voltage current.
•Power lines - Out of every power plant come four wires: the three
phases of power being produced simultaneously plus a neutral to
all three.
 THE ROLE OF TURBINES IN POWER GENERATION

• Turbines are versatile and can be used in a number of

applications such as steam turbines used at coal-burning
electricity plants to liquid water turbines used at hydro-
electric plants.
• Large scale electrical energy production largely depends
on the use of turbines. Nearly all of the world's power
that is supplied to a major grid is produced by turbines.
• The simplistic design, versatility, and efficiency of
turbines allow for its widespread use in electrical power
generation.
 TURBINES USED IN HYDRO POWER PLANTS
• The type of
hydropower turbine
selected for a project is
based on the head and
the flow or volume of
water at the site.
• Other deciding factors
include how deep the
turbine must be set,
efficiency, and cost.
• There are two main
types of hydro turbines:
impulse and reaction.
 Types of Hydropower
⚫ Impoundment
An impoundment facility, typically a large hydropower system,
uses a dam to store river water in a reservoir. The water may
be released either to meet changing electricity needs or to
maintain a constant reservoir level.
⚫ Diversion
A diversion, sometimes called run-of-river, facility channels a
portion of a river through a canal or penstock. It may not
require the use of a dam.
⚫ Pumped Storage
When the demand for electricity is low, a pumped storage
facility stores energy by pumping water from a lower reservoir
to an upper reservoir. During periods of high electrical
demand, the water is released back to the lower reservoir to
generate electricity.
 Advantages
1. Once a dam is constructed, electricity can be produced
at a constant rate.
2. If electricity is not needed, the sluice gates can be shut,
stopping electricity generation. The water can be saved
for use another time when electricity demand is high.
3. Dams are designed to last many decades and so can
contribute to the generation of electricity for many years /
decades.
4. The lake that forms behind the dam can be used for
water sports and leisure / pleasure activities. Often large
dams become tourist attractions in their own right.
5. The lake's water can be used for irrigation purposes.
 Disadvantages
1. Dams are extremely expensive to build and must be built
to a very high standard.
2. The high cost of dam construction means that they must
operate for many decades to become profitable.
3. The flooding of large areas of land means that the
natural environment is destroyed.
4. People living in villages and towns that are in the valley
to be flooded, must move out. This means that they lose
their farms and businesses. In some countries, people
are forcibly removed so that hydro-power schemes can
go ahead.
5. The building of large dams can cause serious geological
damage. For example, the building of the Hoover Dam in
the USA triggered a number of earth quakes and has
depressed the earth’s surface at its location.
 Facts
• Hydropower uses the energy of moving water for a
variety of useful applications.
• Hydroelectricity generates electricity by harnessing the
gravitational force of falling water.
• In 2006, hydroelectricity supplied around 20% of the
world’s electricity.
• Most hydroelectric power stations use water held in
dams to drive turbines and generators which turn
mechanical energy into electrical energy.
• The largest hydroelectric power station in the world is the
Three Gorges Dam in China.
THERMAL/STEAM POWER PLANT
UNIT V LECTURE VI 17
THERMAL/STEAM POWER PLANT

18
 WORKING PRINCIPLE
• Water is pressurized into the boiler with the help of pump and it is
continuously converted into steam.
• The mechanical work supplied to the power plant to drive the pump is
very small.
• As the fuel burns, the heat released is transferred to the water and is
converted into the steam.
• The steam produced is at high pressure and temperature. The steam
then flow through pipes to the turbine shaft to produce power.
• The turbine is connected to a generator that converts the mechanical
energy in to electricity.
• The low- pressure steam, which leaves the turbine, enters the
condenser and leaves as water at low pressure and temperature to
make it easy for pumping for the next cycle of operation.
19
 COMPONENT OF A STEAM POWER
PLANT
❖Boiler
❖Air Intake System
❖Fuel Supply System
❖Steam Turbine
❖Generator
❖Condenser
❖Cooling
❖Ash Handling System 20
The whole arrangement can be divided into the following stages
for the sake of simplicity :

1.Coal and ash handling arrangement

2. Steam generating plant

3. Steam turbine

4. Alternator

5. Feed water

6. Cooling arrangement
 Coal and ash handling plant
• The coal is transported to the power station by road or rail and
is stored in the coal storage plant
• From the coal storage plant, coal is delivered to the coal
handling plant where it is pulverised
• The pulverised coal is fed to the boiler by belt conveyors
• The coal is burnt in the boiler and the ash produced after the
complete combustion of coal is removed to the ash handling
plant and then delivered to the ash storage plant for disposal
• The removal of the ash from the boiler furnace is necessary for
proper burning of coal.
 Steam generating plant
The steam generating plant consists of a boiler for the
production of steam and other auxiliary equipment for the
utilisation of flue gases.
 other auxiliary equipment
(i) Boiler

(ii) Superheater

(iii) Economiser

(iv) Air preheater

 Boiler
• The heat of combustion of coal in the boiler is utilised to
convert water into steam at high temperature and pressure
• The flue gases from the boiler make their journey through
superheater, economiser, air pre-heater and are finally
exhausted to atmosphere through the chimney.
• According to relative flow
– Fire Tube Boilers
– Water Tube Boilers
• According to application
– Utility Boilers
– Industrial Boilers
– Marine Boilers
 Super heater
• The steam produced in the boiler is wet and is passed through
a superheater where it is dried and superheated by the flue
gases on their way to chimney.
• Superheating provides two principal benefits. Firstly, the
overall efficiency is increased. Secondly, too much
condensation in the last stages of turbine (which would cause
blade corrosion) is avoided.
 Economiser
• An economiser is essentially a feed water heater and derives
heat from the flue gases for this purpose.
• The feed water is fed to the economiser before supplying to
the boiler.
• The economiser extracts a part of heat of flue gases to
increase the feed water temperature.
 Air preheater
• An air preheater increases the temperature of the air supplied
for coal burning by deriving heat from flue gases.
• Air is drawn from the atmosphere by a forced draught fan and
is passed through air preheater before supplying to the boiler
furnace.
• The air preheater extracts heat from flue gases and increases
the temperature of air used for coal combustion

The principal benefits of preheating the air are:

• Increased thermal efficiency and
• Increased steam capacity per square metre of boiler surface
 Steam turbine
• The dry and superheated steam from the superheater is fed to
the steam turbine through main valve
• The heat energy of steam when passing over the blades of
turbine is converted into mechanical energy
• After giving heat energy to the turbine, the steam is exhausted
to the condenser which condenses the exhausted steam by
means of cold water circulation.
 Alternator
• The steam turbine is coupled to an alternator
• The alternator converts mechanical energy of turbine into
electrical energy
• The electrical output from the alternator is delivered to the bus
bars through transformer, circuit breakers and isolators
 Feed water
• The condensate from the condenser is used as feed water to
the boiler
• The feed water on its way to the boiler is heated by water
heaters and economiser
• This helps in raising the overall efficiency of the plant.
 Cooling arrangement
• In order to improve the efficiency of the plant, the steam
exhausted from the turbine is condensed by means of a
condenser
• Water is drawn from a natural source of supply such as a river,
canal or lake and is circulated through the condenser
• The circulating water takes up the heat of the exhausted steam
and itself becomes hot. This hot water coming out from the
condenser is discharged at a suitable location down the river
• In case the availability of water from the source of supply is
not assured throughout the year, cooling towers are used
• During the scarcity of water in the river, hot water from the
condenser is passed on to the cooling towers where it is
cooled. The cold water from the cooling tower is reused in the
condenser.
 Advantages
❑ The fuel used is quite cheap.
❑ Less initial cost as compared to other generating plants.
❑ It can be installed at any place irrespective of the
existence of coal. The coal can be transported to the site
of the plant by rail or road.
❑ It require less space as compared to Hydro power
plants.
❑ Cost of generation is less than that of diesel power
plants.

33
Disadvantages
• It pollutes the atmosphere due to production of large
amount of smoke and fumes.
• It is costlier in running cost as compared to Hydro
electric plants.

34
 Application
Steam is used in a wide range of industries. Common applications for steam
are, for example, steam heated processes in plants and factories and steam
driven turbines in electric power plants, but the uses of steam in industry
extend far beyond this.
Here are some typical applications for steam in industry:
• Heating/Sterilization
• Propulsion/Drive
• Motive
• Atomization Rs 1,450 per tonne to Rs 1,600 per tonne.
• Cleaning
• Miniaturization
• Humidification
For higher production of electricity, Steam power plant is better than diesel
power plant

35
Nuclear Power
Plant
 What is nuclear energy?
Power plants use heat to produce electricity.
Nuclear energy produces electricity from heat
through a process called fission. Nuclear power
plants use the heat produced by fission of certain
atoms.

Nuclear fission
nucleus of atom is split into parts,
produces free neutrons and
energy
 U
92
Nuclear Fuel: Uranium
Uranium
Uranium-235
Fission of U-235 splits nucleus
in two pieces
releases neutrons for chain
reaction
The fuel used in Nuclear fission chain
nuclear power reaction 🡪 releases energy in
plants is an the form of heat
isotope of the
radioactive
element uranium
 The Nuclear Power Plant
Nuclear power plant
consists of all the
parts needed to create
electricity by using
Fission occurs The heat is used nuclear energy
in the reactor to heat water to
vessel. Heat is create steam
produced.

The steam is
The steam is used to turn the
cooled in the turbine in the
condenser to generator to
return to the produce
liquid phase. electricity
 Components of a Nuclear
Power Plant
✔ Nuclear Reactor
✔ Feed Pump
✔ Steam Generator
✔ Condenser
✔ Turbine
✔ Cooling Tower
✔ Coolant Pump
 Nuclear Reactors Containment st
Nuclear Reactor 🡪 device built to contains the re
sustain a controlled nuclear fission in at least 3 fee
chain reaction concrete!

Main Components of Nuclear

Reactor:
- reactor vessel
- tubes of uranium
- control rods
- containment structure
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Crocus-p1020491.jpg

control rods control

radioactivity, absorbs
neutrons

www.pbase.com/pbrakke/image/44279993
42
 NUCLEAR REACTOR
⮚A nuclear reactor is a device in which nuclear chain reactions are
initiated, controlled, and sustained at a steady rate, as opposed to a
nuclear bomb, in which the chain reaction occurs in a fraction of a
second and is uncontrolled causing an explotion.
 CONTROL RODS
⮚Control rods made of a material that absorbs neutrtons are
inserted into the bundle using a mechanism that can rise or
lower the control rods.

⮚. The control rods essentially contain neutron absorbers like,

boron, cadmium or indium.
 STEAM GENERATORS
⮚Steam generators are heat exchangers used to convert water
into steam from heat produced in a nuclear reactor core.

⮚Either ordinary water or heavy water is used as the coolant .

 COOLANT PUMP
⮚The coolant pump pressurizes the coolant to pressures of the
orderof 155bar.

⮚The pressue of the coolant loop is maintained almost constant

with the help of the pump and a pressurizer unit.

 FEED PUMP
⮚Steam coming out of the turbine, flows through the
condenser for condensation and recirculated for the next
cycle of operation.

⮚The feed pump circulates the condensed water in the

working fluid loop.

 COOLING TOWER
⮚Cooling towers are heat removal devices used to transfer process
waste heat to the atmosphere.

⮚Water circulating through the condenser is taken to the cooling tower

for cooling and reuse
 Advantages
• Lower Greenhouse Gas Emissions
• Powerful and Efficient
• Reliable
• Cheap Electricity
• Low Fuel Cost
• Continuous Supply
• Easy Transportation

Note : about 28 gram of uranium releases as

much energy as produced from 100 metric
tons of coal
 Disadvantages
• Radioactive Waste
• Nuclear Accidents
• Nuclear Radiation
• High Setup Cost
• Non Renewable
 Nuclear Reactors
Two main types of nuclear reactors…
A Pressurized Water Reactor A Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)
(PWR) keeps water under uses the heat from fission to
pressure so that it heats up but heat water until it boils. The
doesn’t boil. Water from the water from the reactor and
reactor and water that is turned that water that is turned into
into steam are in separate pipes steam are the same

Other Types
✔Heavy Water Reactor
✔ Graphite Moderated Reactor
✔ Fast Breeder Reactor
 Advantages of PWR
• Good Load Following Characteristics -
claimed for SIZEWELL B. - most PWRs
are NOT operated as such.
• High Fuel Burn-up- about 2900TJ/tonne –
• Vertical Control Rods - drop by gravity in
fault conditions.

52
 Disadvantages of PWR
• ORDINARY WATER As COOLANT - pressure to prevent
boiling (160 bar). If break occurs then water will flash to
steam and cooling will be less effective.
• On Load Refuelling Not Possible - reactor must be shut
down.
• Significant Contamination Of Coolant Can Arise From
Burst Fuel Cans - as defective units cannot be removed
without shutting down reactor.
• Fuel Enrichment Needed. - 3-4%.
• Maximum Efficiency ~ 31 - 32% (latest designs ~ 34%)

53
 Advantages of BWR
• High Fuel Burn-up- about
2600TJ/tonne
• Steam Passed Directly To Turbine
therefore no heat exchangers needed.

54
 Disadvantages of BWR
• ORDINARY WATER As COOLANT – but designed to boil:
pressure ~ 75 bar.
• Control Rods Must Be Driven Upwards - SO NEED POWER IN
FAULT CONDITIONS. Provision made to dump water
(moderator in such circumstances).
• On Load Refuelling Not Possible - reactor must be shut down.
• Significant Contamination Of Coolant Can Arise From Burst
Fuel Cans - as defective units cannot be removed without
shutting down reactor. ALSO IN SUCH CIRCUMSTANCES
RADIOACTIVE STEAM WILL PASS DIRECTLY TO
TURBINES.
• Fuel Enrichment Needed. - 3%.
• Maximum Efficiency ~ 34-35%
55
 Application of Nuclear Energy
• Electric Power Generation
• Medicine
• Scientific Research
• Food & Agriculture
• Consumer Products
• Industrial Applications
• Space

56
 WIND
ENERGY

57
 WIND ENERGY
❖ Wind energy is a form of renewable energy
produced through machines that use wind as their
power source.
❖ The wind is one of the cleanest sources of energy,
and because it is a naturally generated resource.
❖ It is the form of energy conversion in which turbines
convert the kinetic energy of wind into mechanical or
electrical energy that can used for power.

58
 WIND TURBINE
❖Wind turbines are used to generate electricity
from the kinetic power of the wind.
❖A wind turbine is a device that converts kinetic
energy from the wind into electrical power. A
wind turbine used for charging batteries may be
referred to as a wind charger.
❖There are two types :-
1.Horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWT)
2.Vertical axis wind turbines (VAWT)
59
60
61
 Horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWT)
❖ Rotors are usually Up-wind of
tower.
❖ Some machines have down-wind
rotors, but only commercially
available ones are small
turbines.
❖ The turbines rotates from 300 to
400 rpm producing power in the
range of 50 KW to few MW.
Large utility-scale projects have
hundreds of turbines spread over
many acres of land.
62
63
 Calculation of Wind
Power
PPowoweerr inin= ½ρAV3
•
Power in the Wind
tthhee wwiinndd
where,
ρ = Effect of air density,
A = Effect of swept area and
V = Effect of wind speed

Swept Area: A = πR2 Area of the

circle swept by the rotor (m2).
VERTICAL AXIS WIND TURBINES (VAWT)
❖ Vertical-axis wind machines have blades that go from top to
bottom.
❖ VAWT have the main rotor shaft running vertically.
❖ The advantages of this arrangement are that the generator
and gearbox can be placed at the bottom, near the ground,
so the tower construction is simple and the turbine does not
need to be pointed into the wind.
❖ The most common type — the Darrieus wind turbine, named
after the French engineer Georges Darrieus who patented
the design in 1931 — looks like a giant, two-bladed egg
beater.
❖ This type of vertical wind machine typically stands 100 feet
tall and 50 feet wide. Vertical-axis wind machines make up
65
only a very small share of the wind machines used today.
66
❖Lift Device “Darrieus”
Low solidity, aerofoil blades
More efficient than drag device
❖Drag Device “Savonius”
High solidity, cup shapes are pushed by the wind
At best can capture only 15% of wind energy

67
 s
Vertical Axis Turbine
s

Advantages Disadvantages
•Omnidirectional •Rotors generally near ground
where wind poorer
– Accepts wind from any •Centrifugal force stresses
angle blades
•Components can be •Poor self-starting capabilities
•Requires support at top of
mounted at ground level turbine rotor
– Ease of service •Requires entire rotor to be
removed to replace bearings
– Lighter weight towers •Overall poor performance and
•Can theoretically use reliability
less materials to capture •Have never been
the same amount of wind commercially successful
Advantages of Wind Power

•The wind blows day and night, which allows windmills to

produce electricity throughout the day.(Faster during the
day)
•Wind power is available in ample amounts in all coastal
areas.
•The decreasing cost of wind power and the growing interest
in renewable energy sources should ensure that wind power
will become a viable energy source worldwide.
 Environmental advantages of
wind power….
• It does not produce any carbon dioxide.
• It is a renewable energy.
• There is no use of fossil fuels.
• Almost 95% of the land in use can be used for
farming/recreational purpose.
 Some
images……
Early “WINDMILL” in Afghanistan (900AD)
Jacobs Turbine Smith-Putnam Turbine

– 1920 - Vermont, 1940's

1960
WWiinnddfa
r m 2
fa r m 2
Off-Shore Windfarms
Middelgrunden
OTEC Plant on Keahole Point, Hawaii
83
 Ocean Thermal Energy
• Energy is available from the ocean by
– Tapping ocean currents
– Using the ocean as a heat engine
– Tidal energy
– Wave energy
 OCEAN ENERGY
❖Hot surface water, boils low boiling point
liquid.
❖Boiling liquid turns turbine which generates
electricity.
❖Electricity carried to land through underwater
cable.
❖Deep cold water used to cool and condense
liquid.

85
❖ OTEC, Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion is an energy
technology that converts solar radiation to electric
power.
❖ OTEC systems use the ocean’s natural thermal gradient.
❖ The OTEC process consist of pumping cold ocean water
to the surface and using the temperature difference
between this and the warm surface water to run a
thermal engine to generate electricity.
❖ Producing electricity is not the only thing that OTEC can
do. You can, if you want, reduce the amount of electric
power and produce fresh water instead.

86
87
88
 Types of OTEC
• Closed cycle system
• Heat from warm seawater causes a fluid like ammonia to be
evaporated in an evaporator
• Expanding vapor rotates a turbine connected to an electric
generator.
• Cold seawater is brought up and cools the ammonia vapor
in a condenser. This liquid returns to the evaporator and the
process repeats.
 Types of OTECs
• Open Cycle Systems
• Working fluid is the seawater.
• Warm seawater is brought into a partial vacuum.
• In the vacuum, the warm seawater boils and the steam drives a
turbine
• The steam enters a condenser, where it is cooled by cold
seawater brought up form below and it condenses back into
liquid and is discharged into the ocean.
 OTEC System Application
⮚ Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) systems have many applications or uses.
⮚ OTEC can be used to generate electricity, desalinate water, support deep-water mariculture,
and provide refrigeration and air- conditioning as well as aid in crop growth and mineral
extraction.

1. Electricity Production
⮚ Two basic OTEC system designs have been demonstrated to generate electricity: closed cycle and open
cycle.
⮚ The details are discussed in the above slide.
2. Desalinated Water
⮚Desalinated water can be produced in open- or hybrid-cycle plants using surface
condensers.
⮚A surface condenser can be used to recover part of the steam in the cycle and to
reduce the overall size of the heat exchangers.
⮚One way to produce large quantities of desalinated water without incurring the cost
of an open-cycle turbine is to use a hybrid system.
⮚In a hybrid system, desalinated water is produced by vacuum flash distillation and
power is produced by a closed cycle loop.
3. Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning
⮚The cold [5°C (41ºF)] seawater made available by an OTEC system creates an
opportunity to provide large amounts of cooling to operations that are related to or
close to the plant.
⮚The low-cost refrigeration provided by the cold seawater can be used to upgrade
or maintain the quality of indigenous fish, which tend to deteriorate quickly in warm
tropical regions.
⮚The cold seawater delivered to an OTEC plant can be used in chilled-water coils
to provide airconditioning for buildings

4. Mineral Extraction
⮚The ocean contains 57 trace elements in salt dissolved in solution.
⮚The Japanese recently began investigating the concept of combining the
extraction of uranium dissolved in sea water with wave-energy technology.
⮚They found that developments in other technologies were improving the
viability of mineral extraction processes that employ ocean energy.
 Advantages of OTEC
⮚ Helps in producing fuels such as hydrogen, ammonia, and methanol .
⮚ Produces base load electrical energy .
⮚ Produces desalinated water for industrial, agricultural, and residential uses .
⮚ Is a resource for on-shore and near-shore Mari culture operations .
⮚ Provides air-conditioning for buildings .
⮚ Provides moderate-temperature refrigeration .
⮚ Has significant potential to provide clean, cost-effective electricity for the future.
⮚ Food Aquaculture products can be cultivated in discharge water.
⮚ Eco- friendly .
⮚ Minimal maintenance costs compared to other power production plants.
⮚ OTEC helps in mining .
⮚ Specially beneficial for small islands as they can become self- sufficient .
 Disadvantages of OTEC
⮚ OTEC produced electricity at present would cost more than electricity generated
from fossils fuels at their current costs.
⮚ No energy company put money in this project because it only had been tested in a
very small scale.
⮚ Construction of OTEC plants and lying of pipes in coastal waters may cause
localized damage to reefs and near-shore marine ecosystem.
⮚ OTEC plant construction and operation may affect commercial and recreational
fishing.
⮚Other risks associated with the OTEC power system are the safety issues
associated with steam electric power generation plants are : -

•Electrical hazards,
•Rotating machinery,
•Use of compressed gases,
•Heavy material-handling equipment, and
•Shop and maintenance hazards.
SOLAR ENERGY

95
 SOLAR ENERGY
❖Solar energy is the radiant energy produced
by the Sun. It is both light and heat.
❖The Earth receives 174 peta watts (PW) (1
peta watt = 1.0 × 10+15 ) watts of solar
radiation at the upper atmosphere.
❖Solar power is energy from the sun.
"Solar" is the Latin word for
"sun“ and it's a powerful
source of energy.
96
SOLAR ENERGY CONVERSION
SYSTEM
❖Solar energy can be converted to electricity
by two methods. They are
1.Solar thermal conversion
2.Photovoltaic conversion

97
SOLAR THERMAL CONVERSION
❖Solar thermal conversion system is
divided into two types

1.Low temperature systems

2.High temperature systems

98
LOW TEMPERATURE SYSTEMS
❖ Water is circulated through the flat plate
collector by the circulation pump. The heat
received by the collector is transferred to
water and it is heated.
❖ This hot water enters the heat exchanger
where butane is available. Butane is used
because it is having a very low boiling
point.
❖ At about 80 0C of water, Butane becomes a
superheated vapour and enters the
turbines and rotates it, the generator
coupled to it converts the mechanical
energy into electrical energy.
❖ The vapour after doing work enters the
condenser, becomes a liquid and is
circulated with the help of pump.

99
HIGH TEMPERATURE SYSTEMS

100
❖ These systems convert the sun’s heat into both
electricity and hot water at the same time for many uses.
❖ They offer electrical power for both remote and utility-
scale applications. Because of their economies of scale
and efficiencies, they can work in many large-scale
projects where other sources of energy are not yet
economical.
❖ There are three types of CSP (Concentrating Solar
Power) systems.
1. Power towers
2. Parabolic troughs
3. Dish/Engine Systems.
101
 PARABOLIC TROUGH SYSTEMS
• One type of high-temperature system is
the trough system, in which the troughs
focus sunlight onto steel pipes or glass
tubes.
• The heat transfer fluid in the pipes
reaches more than 700 degrees F and
flows through a heat exchanger,
providing superheated steam for a
turbine generator.
• Sunlight is focused on a pipe filled with
oil that’s runs down the axis of the
trough. When the oil gets heated up, it is
used to boil water in a conventional
steam generator to produce electricity.

102
 DISH SYSTEMS
❖ A second type of high-temperature
solar thermal system is a dish
system, which uses a parabolic
tracking concentrator to focus the
sun’s rays onto a receiver mounted
above the dish at its focal point.
❖ The dish-shaped surface focused
and concentrates the sun’s heat
onto a receiver at the focal point of
the dish. The receiver absorbs the
heat and transfers it to a fluid within
an engine, where the heat causes
the fluid to expend against a piston
103
to produce mechanical power.
 PHOTOVOLTAIC CONVERSION
Photovoltaic (PV) is a method of generating electrical power
by converting sunlight into direct current electricity using
semiconducting materials. Photo meaning "light" and voltaic
meaning "electricity"), convert sunlight directly into electricity.
❖ Photovoltaic cells are made of special materials called semiconductors
such as silicon, which is currently used most commonly. Basically, when
light strikes the cell, a certain portion of it is absorbed within the
semiconductor material.
❖ This means that the energy of the absorbed light is transferred to the
semiconductor.
❖ The energy knocks electrons loose, allowing them to flow freely. It has also
been used to power small electronic devices, rural and agricultural
applications.
❖ During last decade, a strong solar electric market has emerged for
powering homes and buildings because of advances in solar technology.
 HOW SOLAR CELLS WORK
1. Photons in sunlight hit the
solar panel and are absorbed
by semiconducting
materials,
such as silicon.
2. Electrons (negatively charged)
are knocked loose from their

atoms, allowing them to flow

through the material to
produce electricity.
3. An array of solar cells
converts solar energy into a
usable 105
PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS GENERATE
ELECTRICITY DIRECTLY
❖ Photovoltaic cells = collect sunlight and convert it into
electrical energy
❖These are used with wind turbines and diesel engines
❖ Photovoltaic (photoelectric) effect = occurs when light
strikes one of a pair of metal plates in a PV cell, causing
the release of electrons, creating an electric current
❖ A PV cell has two silicon plates, the n-type layer (rich in
electrons) and the p-type layer (electron poor)
❖Sunlight causes electrons to flow from the n-type to
the p-type layer, generating electricity. 106
107
Advantages of Solar energy to the environment...
– It is a renewable energy.
Sun is an ever-lasting source of energy.
– It is non-polluting.
It does not release any green-house gases.
Moreover, the production of solar cells also does
not produce much green house gases.
– It does not produce any noise.
Solar power does not produce any noise like wind
energy or hydro energy.
Advantages of Solar energy to the environment...
– Solar cells are recyclable.
After the life of solar cells is finished, solar cells can be recycled
to form functional solar cells.
– Solar energy is uniformly distributed all over the earth.
Solar energy is available to all countries free of cost. Every country
gets good amount of solar energy every day. No country can
claim that they do not get solar energy.
– Easy availability.
The photovoltaic cells which constitute most solar energy systems are usually made of silicon, one of
the most common minerals found on Earth. That means that creating the components is extremely
easy, doesn't require mining or drilling in a dangerous locale to
pro
duc
e
Disadvantages of solar energy..
– Solar energy is highly diffuse.
We need special collectors in order to be able to use solar energy in an
effective form.

– Currently, the efficiency of solar cells is very less.

Today’s solar cells can generate only about 45 milliwatts per square inch.

– Solar energy is not available at night.

Special storage facilities like batteries are needed to store solar energy.
Life of batteries is only 4 years.

– Solar cells are very expensive.

– Angle of incidence is very important while generating electricity with

solar cells. Angle of incidence should be 90 degrees for maximum
efficiency. This angle is difficult to maintain at all times.
Environmental impacts of Solar energy…..
• Cadmium
Cadmium is used in cadmium telluride solar cells
as a semiconductor to convert solar energy into
electricity. Though used in very small amounts, it
is extremely toxic and can build up in a given
ecosystem if it isn't monitored.
GAS TURBINES

UNIT V LECTURE VI 112

 CLASSIFICATION OF GAS TURBINES :

′
Gas turbines are classified according to three factors , These are :
1.Combustion process
2.Path of working substance
3.Action of combustion gases in turbine

1
1
3
 Classification of Gas turbine

Combustion process Action of

Path of Gases
Gases

Const. Const.
volume pressure
Impulse-
Impulse
Reaction
Turbine
Turbine

Open Cycle GT Closed Cycle GT Semi Closed Cycle GT

1
1
4
 Brayton Cycle: Ideal Cycle for Gas-Turbine Engines
Gas turbines usually operate on an open cycle
(Fig. 9–29).
Air at ambient conditions is drawn into the
compressor, where its temperature and pressure
are raised. The high pressure air proceeds into
the combustion chamber, where the fuel is
burned at constant pressure.

The high-temperature gases then enter the

turbine where they expand to atmospheric
pressure while producing power output.
Some of the output power is used to drive the
compressor.
The exhaust gases leaving the turbine are
thrown out (not re- circulated), causing the cycle
to be classified as an open cycle.
 Closed Cycle Model
The open gas-turbine cycle can be
modelled as a closed cycle, using
the air-standard assumptions (Fig.
9–30).
The compression and expansion
processes remain the same, but the
combustion process is replaced by
a constant-pressure heat addition
process from an external source.
The exhaust process is replaced by
a constant-pressure heat rejection
process to the ambient air.

116
 Compare Open cycle and Closed cycle Gas
turbines
Open cycle:
1.Warm-up time. Once the turbine is brought up to the rated speed by the starting motor
and the fuel is ignited, the gas turbine will be accelerated from cold start to full load
without warm-up time.
2.Low weight and size. The weight in kg per kW developed is less.
3.Open cycle plants occupy comparatively little space.
4.Open-cycle gas turbine power plant, except those having an intercooler, does not
require cooling water.
5.The part load efficiency of the open cycle plant decreases rapidly as the considerable
percentage of power developed by the turbine is used to drive the
compressor.
6.The open-cycle gas turbine plant has high air rate compared to the other cycles,
therefore, it results in increased loss of heat in the exhaust gases.
11
7
 Compare Open cycle and Closed cycle Gas
turbines
Contd…
Closed cycle:
1.The machine can be smaller and cheaper than the machine used to develop the same
power using open cycle plant.
2.The closed cycle avoids erosion of the turbine blades due to the contaminated gases
and fouling of compressor blades due to dust. Therefore, it is practically free from
deterioration of efficiency in service.
3.The need for filtration of the incoming air which is a severe problem in open cycle plant
is completely eliminated.
4.The maintenance cost is low and reliability is high due to longer useful life.
5.The system is dependent on external means as considerable quantity of cooling water
is required in the pre-cooler.
6.The response to the load variations is poor compared to the open-cycle plant
11
8
Working principle :
¬Air is compressed(squeezed) to high
pressure by a compressor.
¬Then fuel and compressed air are mixed in a combustion
chamber and ignited.
¬Hot gases are given off, which spin the turbine wheels.
Description:

¬
Gas turbines burn fuels such as oil, nature
gas and pulverized(powdered) coal.
¬
Gas turbines have three main parts:
i)Air compressor
ii)Combustion chamber
iii)Turbine
 Air compressor
¬
The air compressor and turbine are mounted at
either end on a common shaft, with the combustion
chamber between them.
¬
Gas turbines are not self starting. A starting motor
is used.
¬
The air compressor sucks in air and compresses it,
thereby increasing its pressure.
Combustion chamber:
¬
In the combustion chamber, the compressed air
combines with fuel and the resulting mixture is burnt.
¬
The greater the pressure of air, the better the fuel air
mixture burns.
¬
Modern gas turbines usually use liquid fuel, but they
may also use gaseous fuel, natural gas or gas produced
artificially by gasification of a solid fuel.
Turbine:
¬
Hot gases move through a multistage gas
turbine.
¬
Like in steam turbine, the gas turbine also has
stationary and moving blades.
¬
The stationary blades
⎫
guide the moving gases to the rotor blades
⎫
adjust its velocity.
¬
The shaft of the turbine is
Open cycle gas turbine power plant
Closed cycle gas turbine power plant
 Improvements of Gas Turbine’s Performance
The early gas turbines (1940s to 1959s) found only limited use despite their
versatility and their ability to burn a variety of fuels, because its thermal efficiency
was only about 17%. Efforts to improve the cycle efficiency are concentrated in
three areas:

1.Increasing the turbine inlet (or firing) temperatures.

The turbine inlet temperatures have increased steadily from about 540°C (1000°F) in the
1940s to 1425°C (2600°F) and even higher today.
2.Increasing the efficiencies of turbo-machinery components (turbines,
compressors).
The advent of computers and advanced techniques for computer-aided design made it
possible to design these components aerodynamically with minimal losses.
3.Adding modifications to the basic cycle (intercooling, regeneration or recuperation, and
reheating).
The simple-cycle efficiencies of early gas turbines were practically doubled by
incorporating intercooling, regeneration (or recuperation), and reheating.
Brayton Cycle With Regeneration
Temperature of the exhaust gas leaving the turbine is
higher than the temperature of the air leaving the
compressor.
The air leaving the compressor can be heated by the
hot exhaust gases in a counter-flow heat exchanger (a
regenerator or recuperator) – a process called
regeneration (Fig. 9-38 & Fig. 9-39).
The thermal efficiency of the Brayton cycle increases
due to regeneration since less fuel is used for the same
work output.

Note:
The use of a regenerator
is recommended only
when the turbine exhaust
temperature is higher than
the compressor exit 12
temperature.
 Brayton Cycle With Intercooling,
Reheating, & Regeneration
The net work output of a gas-turbine cycle can be
increased by either:
a)decreasing the compressor work, or
b)increasing the turbine work, or
c)both.
The compressor work input can be decreased by
carrying out the compression process in stages
and cooling the gas in between (Fig. 9-42), using
multistage compression with intercooling.
The work output of a turbine can be increased by
expanding the gas in stages and reheating it in
between, utilizing a multistage expansion with
reheating.
12
9
Physical arrangement of an ideal two-stage
gas- turbine cycle with intercooling, reheating,
and regeneration is shown in Fig. 9-43.

16
 Advantages of gas turbine power
plant
¬Storage of fuel requires less area and handling is easy.
¬The cost of maintenance is less.
¬It is simple in construction. There is no need for boiler,
condenser and other accessories as in the case of steam
power plants.
¬Cheaper fuel such as kerosene , paraffin, benzene and
powdered coal can be used which are cheaper than petrol
and diesel.
¬Gas turbine plants can be used in water scarcity areas.
¬Less pollution and less water is required.
Applications of gas turbine:

¬
drive pumps, compressors and high speed cars.
¬
aircraft and ships.
¬
Power generation (used for peak load and as stand- by
unit).
 Selection and Location of
Power Plants
• The selection of the site for a power plant
depends upon many factors such as cost
of transmission of energy, cost of fuel,
cost of land and taxes, requirement of
space, availability of site for water power,
storage space for fuel, transport facilities,
availability of cooling water, nature of
load, degree of reliability, pollution and
noise, interest and depreciation etc.
134
 Tutorial 12: Energy Conversion Methods

More examples
Heat engines (Chemical energy → Heat → Mechanical energy)
Fire (Chemical energy → Heat and light)
Electric circuit with a battery (Chemical energy → Electricity → an energy service like
light)
Wind turbines (Motion of wind → Electricity)
Cell phones (Sound ↔ Electricity ↔ Electromagnetic radiation)

135