• In geology, felsic is an adjective describing igneous rocks that are relatively rich in elements that form

feldspar and quartz. It is contrasted with mafic rocks, which are relatively richer in magnesium and iron.

• Felsic refers to silicate minerals, magma, and rocks which are enriched in the lighter elements such as silicon,
oxygen, aluminium, sodium, and potassium. Felsic magma or lava is higher in viscosity than mafic
magma/lava.

Brecciation: the process of breaking down rock into angular fragments.

hydraulic fracturing gave rise to brecciation of the banded rocks

Silicification:
A process in which the original minerals of a rock become replaced by silicate minerals, this process is caused by
the flow of aqueous silica solution through the rocks pore space and over its surface
Calcite
Calcite is a mineral, which contains calcium carbonate (CaCO3). This is an abundant mineral on the earth
surface. Calcite can form rocks, and they may grow up to large sizes. They are found in all three types of rocks,
which are sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks. Different varieties of calcites can be formed due to
variations in the distribution and environments. They can exist as colorless crystals, or sometimes can have
white, pink, yellow or brownish colors. The crystals can be transparent, translucent or opaque, depending on
the substances it has incorporated within when forming. The amount of calcium carbonate containing in the
rock can vary. Sometimes, there are calcite minerals, which contain about 99% calcium carbonate. Calcite has
unique optical properties. When a ray of light goes through a calcite mineral, it double reflects the light.
Furthermore, calcite has fluorescence, phosphorescence, thermo luminescence and triboluminescence
properties. Depending on the calcite variety, the extent of showing these properties may vary. Calcites react
with acids and produce carbon dioxide gas. Especially in water, it becomes less soluble as the temperature
increases, which allow calcite to precipitate and form more massive crystals. Calcites are relatively less hard, so
they can be scratched by a fingernail. Calcite can be mainly found in Ohio, Illinois, New Jersey, Tennessee, and
Kansas in USA, and Germany, Brazil, Mexico, England, Iceland, many African countries etc
Quartz
Quartz is the mineral which contains silicon dioxide (SiO2) mainly. Quartz has a unique crystalline structure
with helix chains of silicon tetrahedrons. This is the second most abundant mineral in the earth surface and has
a wide distribution. Quartz is a component of all three types of metamorphic, igneous and sedimentary rocks.
Quartz can vary from one place to another by their color, transparency, the amount of silicon dioxide, size,
constituents, etc. They can be colorless, pink, red, black, blue, orange, brown, yellow, purple colored. Some of
the quartz minerals can be transparent, whereas come can be translucent. Citrine, amethyst, milky quartz, rock
crystal, rose quartz, smoky quartz and prasiolite are some of the large crystal forming quartz types. Quartz is
mostly found in Brazil, Mexico, Russia, etc. There are significant morphological differences in different quartz
minerals; therefore, they are used as ornamental rocks. It is considered as a semiprecious stone and used in
jewelry making. Further, quartz is used for ceramics and cements due to its high thermal and chemical stability.

Amethyst gains its color from gamma irradiation and trace

amounts of Iron.
Citrine. Citrine is the transparent, pale yellow to brownish orange variety of
quartz. Size. Fashioned citrines can be large
Amethyst is a violet variety of quartz.
Prasiolite is a member of the quartz crystal family, so it is a
strong amplifier of energy.
What is the difference between Calcite and Quartz?
• Calcite mainly contains calcium carbonate and quartz mainly contains silicon
dioxide.
• The hardness of quartz is higher than that of calcite. Quartz has Mohs hardness of
7, whereas calcite has Mohs hardness of 3. Therefore, calcite can be scratched by
fingernail.
• Calcite can be easily identified because it dissolves in acids and produce carbon
dioxide. Quartz does not dissolve in acids.
• Calcite has a perfect cleavage in three directions while quartz has a weak cleavage
in three directions.

Quartz-carbonate veins are common in a variety of moderate temperature hydrothermal

systems and ore deposits. Associated fluid inclusions have a wide range of compositions,
including liquid carbon dioxide fillings.
Classification of igneous rock based on sio2 percentage
Rhyolite is an extrusive igneous rock with a very high silica
content. It is usually pink or gray in color with grains so small that
they are difficult to observe without a hand lens. Rhyolite is made
up of quartz, plagioclase, and sandine, with minor amounts of
hornblende and biotite. Trapped gases often produce vugs in the
rock.

Granite is a light-colored intrusive igneous rock with grains

large enough to be visible with the unaided eye. It forms from
the slow crystallization of magma below Earth's
surface. Granite is composed mainly of quartz and feldspar
with minor amounts of mica & amphiboles.
Granodiorite is a phaneritic textured intrusive igneous rock similar to granite, but containing more plagioclase
feldspar than orthoclase feldspar. granodiorite has a greater than 20% quartz by volume, and between 65% to 90% of
the feldspar is plagioclase. A greater amount of plagioclase would designate the rock as tonalite.
Granodiorite is felsic to intermediate in composition. It is the intrusive igneous equivalent of the extrusive igneous
dacite.
It contains a large amount of sodium (Na) and calcium (Ca) rich plagioclase, potassium feldspar, quartz, and minor
amounts of muscovite mica as the lighter colored mineral components. Biotite and amphiboles often in the form
of hornblende are more abundant in granodiorite than in granite, giving it a more distinct two-toned or overall
darker appearance. Mica may be present in well-formed hexagonal crystals, and hornblende may appear as needle-
like crystals. Minor amounts of oxide minerals such as magnetite, ilmenite as well as some sulfide minerals may also
be present.
Dacite is a volcanic rock formed by rapid solidification of lava
that is high in silica and low in alkali metal oxides. It has a fine-
grained (aphanitic) to porphyritic texture and is intermediate in
composition between andesite and rhyolite. It is composed
predominantly of plagioclase feldspar and quartz.
Diorite is an intrusive igneous rock composed principally of the silicate minerals plagioclase feldspar (typically
andesine), biotite, hornblende, and/or pyroxene.
The chemical composition of diorite is intermediate, between that of mafic gabbro and felsic granite. Diorite is usually
grey to dark grey in colour, but it can also be black or bluish-grey, and frequently has a greenish cast. It is distinguished
from gabbro on the basis of the composition of the plagioclase species; the plagioclase in diorite is richer in sodium
and poorer in calcium. Diorite may contain small amounts of quartz, microcline, and olivine. Zircon, apatite, titanite,
magnetite, ilmenite, and sulfides occur as accessory minerals.[
Andesite is an extrusive volcanic rock of intermediate composition.
In a general sense, it is the intermediate type between basalt and
rhyolite. It is fine-grained (aphanitic) to porphyritic in texture, and is
composed predominantly of sodium-rich plagioclase plus pyroxene or
hornblende.
Andesite is the extrusive equivalent of plutonic diorite. Characteristic of
subduction zones
Andesite non magentic
Amygdaloidal definition is - of, being, or containing small
cavities in igneous rock that are filled with deposits of different
minerals (such as chalcedony).
What is the difference between basaltic andesitic
• Basalt is a common extrusive igneous rock formed by the rapid cooling of basaltic
lava exposed at or very near the surface of Earth

• Andesite is a dark, fine-grained, brown or greyish intermediate volcanic rock which is

a commonly found in lava

Both andesite and basalt are volcanic rocks.

Basalt is denser and generally darker than andesite. It has a
lower silica content and more iron and magnesium. It most
often forms from pahoehoe or a'a lava flows and occasionally
scoria cinders.
Andesite forms from more silica-rich material and is often
found in the form of ash, pumice, or volcanic bombs. It may
also sometimes form block lava flows, which are more viscous
that a'a or pahoehoe.
Gabbro is a phaneritic (coarse-grained), mafic intrusive
igneous rock formed from the slow cooling of magnesium-rich
and iron-rich magma into a holocrystalline mass deep beneath
the Earth's surface. Slow-cooling, coarse-grained gabbro is
chemically equivalent to rapid-cooling, fine-grained basalt.

The most important mineral groups that make up

this rock type are plagioclase and pyroxene.
Plagioclase usually predominates over pyroxene.
Plagioclase is sodium-calcium feldspar. It contains
more calcium than sodium in gabbro
Basalt is a fine-grained extrusive igneous rock formed from the
rapid cooling of low-viscosity lava rich in magnesium and iron
(mafic lava) exposed at or very near the surface. More than 90%
of all volcanic rock on Earth is basalt. Rapid-cooling, fine-
grained basalt is chemically equivalent to slow-cooling,
coarse-grained gabbro.
Tuff is an igneous rock that forms from the products of an explosive volcanic eruption. In these
eruptions, the volcano blasts rock, ash, magma and other materials from its vent.
Agglomerate is a pyroclastic coarse accumulation of blocks of volcanic material that contains at least
75% bombs, rounded clasts in a matrix of lava or ash. The clasts are fragments particles that may be
derived from, country rock or pyroclastic rocks.

Tuff is a type of rock made of volcanic ash ejected from a vent

during a volcanic eruption. Following ejection and deposition,
the ash is lithified into a solid rock. Rock that contains greater
than 75% ash is considered tuff, while rock containing 25% to
75% ash is described as tuffaceous (for
example, tuffaceous sandstone)
The term "lamprophyre", from "lampros" and "porphyros" (glistening porphyry), was introduced by
von Gumbel in 1874 for a group of dark rocks that form minor intrusions, contain phenocrystal
brown mica and hornblende, but lack feldspar phenocrysts

Lamprophyres are rocks which are characterized by the presence of euhedral- to-subhedral
phenocrysts of mica and/or amphibole together with lesser clino- pyroxene and/or melilite set in a
groundmass which may consist (either singly or in various combinations) of plagioclase, alkali feldspar,
feldspathoids, carbonate, mon- ticellite, melilite, mica, amphibole, pyroxene perovskite, Fe-Ti oxides
and glass".

The great variety of lamprophyric rocks can be simplified into four well-defined subgroups:

• Calc-alkaline (shoshonitic) lamprophyres.

• Leucite lamprophyres.
• Alkaline lamprophyres.
• Ultramafic lamprophyres
Andesine is a member of the Plagioclase Feldspar Group.
The plagioclase series comprises minerals that range in chemical
composition from pure NaAlSi 3 O 8, Albite to pure CaAl 2 Si 2 O 8,
anorthite.
Andesine by definition must contain 70-50% sodium to 30-50% calcium in
the sodium/calcium position of the crystal structure
Quartz dolerite or quartz diabase is an intrusive rock similar to dolerite (also called diabase), but with an excess of
quartz.Dolerite is similar in composition to basalt, which is volcanic, and gabbro, which is plutonic.The differing crystal
sizes are due to the different rate of cooling, basalt cools quickly and has a very fine structure, while gabbro cools very
slowly, at great depth
Peridotite is a dense, coarse-grained igneous rock consisting mostly of the silicate minerals
olivine and pyroxene. Peridotite is ultramafic, as the rock contains less than 45% silica. It is high in
magnesium (Mg ), reflecting the high proportions of magnesium-rich olivine, with appreciable iron.

Dunite: more than 90% olivine, typically with Mg/Fe ratio of

about 9:1.
• Wehrlite: mostly composed of olivine plus clinopyroxene.
• Harzburgite: mostly composed of olivine plus orthopyroxene
The mineral olivine is a magnesium iron silicate with the chemical formula (Mg , Fe ) 2SiO 4.
It is a type of nesosilicate or orthosilicate. The primary component of the Earth's upper mantle, it is a common mineral in Earth's
subsurface, but weathers quickly on the surface. For this reason, olivine has been proposed as a good candidate for accelerated
weathering to sequester carbon dioxide from the Earth's oceans and atmosphere, as part of climate change mitigation.

Pyroxene is a set of essential rock-forming inosilicate minerals

discovered in many igneous and metamorphic rocks.

Within hand specimens, pyroxene can commonly

be diagnosed by using the subsequent traits: two
guidelines of cleavage intersecting at kind of
proper angles (approximately 87° and 93°),
stubby prismatic crystal addiction with nearly
square cross sections perpendicular to cleavage
guidelines, and a Mohs hardness among five and
seven
• Lapilli means (little stones) is a size classification of tephra,
which is material that falls out of the air during a volcanic eruption
or during some meteorite impacts, lapilli range from 2 to 64 mm
(0.08 to 2.52 in) in diameter.
• A pyroclastic particle greater than 64 mm in diameter is
known as a volcanic bomb when molten, or a volcanic
block when solid.
• Volcanic ash is a mixture of rock, mineral, and glass particles
expelled from a volcano during a volcanic eruption. The particles
are very small—less than 2 millimeters in diameter. They tend to be
pitted and full of holes, which gives them a low density.

• Due to their tiny size and low density, the particles that make up
volcanic ash can travel long distances, carried by winds. When an
ash column is moved about by wind, it is called an ash plume.
Eventually the ash in the sky falls to the ground. It may create a
thick layer of dust-like material on surfaces for miles around the
original eruption.
Agglomerate, large, coarse, rock fragments associated with lava flow that are ejected during explosive volcanic eruptions. Although they closely
resemble sedimentary conglomerates, agglomerates are pyroclastic igneous rocks that consist almost wholly of angular or rounded lava fragments of
varying size and shape. Fragments are usually poorly sorted in a tuffaceous matrix, or appear in lithified volcanic dust or ash.

Depending on the specific context, some geologists prefer to sort agglomerates into either bombs, blocks, or breccia. Bombs and blocks are generally
larger than 32 mm (1.25 inches) in size; although bombs are ejected in a molten state (becoming rounded upon solidification), blocks are erupted as solid
angular or subangular fragments. Upon accumulation, blocks form breccia, which are solid angular fragments larger than 64 mm.

BOMB:A volcanic bomb is a mass of molten rock (tephra) larger than 64

mm (2.5 inches) in diameter, formed when a volcano ejects viscous fragments
of lava during an eruption. They cool into solid fragments before they reach the
ground. Because volcanic bombs cool after they leave the volcano, they are
extrusive igneous rocks.
Ankerite
Ankerite is a calcium, iron, magnesium, manganese carbonate mineral of the group of rhombohedral carbonates with formula:
Ca(Fe,Mg,Mn)(CO₃)₂. In composition it is closely related to dolomite, but differs from this in having magnesium replaced by
varying amounts of iron(II) and manganese. It forms a series with dolomite and kutnohorite.

lamination is a small-scale sequence of fine layers (laminae; singular: lamina) that occurs in sedimentary rocks. Laminae are
normally smaller and less pronounced than bedding. Lamination is often regarded as planar structures one centimeter or less in
thickness, whereas bedding layers are greater than one centimetre.
• Foliation in geology refers to repetitive layering in metamorphic rocks.[1] Each layer can be as thin as a sheet of
paper, or over a meter in thickness. The word comes from the Latin folium, meaning "leaf", and refers to the sheet-
like planar structure
• It is caused by shearing forces (pressures pushing different sections of the rock in different directions), or
differential pressure (higher pressure from one direction than in others). The layers form parallel to the direction of
the shear, or perpendicular to the direction of higher pressure. Nonfoliated metamorphic rocks are typically formed
in the absence of significant differential pressure or shear.
• Foliation is common in rocks affected by the regional metamorphic compression typical of areas of mountain belt
formation (orogenic belts).
• right angle is an angle of exactly 90° (degrees), corresponding to a quarter turn. If a ray is placed so that its
endpoint is on a line and the adjacent angles are equal, then they are right angles.[
A protolith (from Ancient Greek: proto,first, lithos, stone) is the original, metamorphosed rock from which a given metamorphic
rock is formed.. For example, the protolith of a slate is a shale or mudstone. Metamorphic rocks can be derived from any other
kind of non-metamorphic rock and thus there is a wide variety of protoliths.
An ophiolite is a section of Earth's oceanic crust and the underlying upper mantle that has been uplifted and exposed above sea
level and often emplaced onto continental crustal rocks. The Greek word ὄφις, ophis (snake) is found in the name of ophiolites,
because of the superficial texture

f some of them. Serpentinite especially evokes a snakeskin. The suffix lite from the Greek lithos means "stone". Some
ophiolites have a green color. The origin of these rocks, present in many mountainous massifs, remained uncertain
until the advent of plate tectonic theory.
Their great significance relates to their occurrence within mountain belts such as the Alps and the Himalayas, where
they document the existence of former ocean basins that have now been consumed by subduction. This insight was
one of the founding pillars of plate tectonics, and ophiolites have always played a central role in plate tectonic theory
and the interpretation of ancient mountain belts.
What kind of rock is the ophiolite made of?
Ophiolite is thrust sheets of ancient oceanic crust and upper part of mantle rocks that have been uplifted and exposed above sea
level and often emplaced on top of the continental lithosphere. Ophiolite is composed of green-colored altered spilt (fine-grained
oceanic basalt), pillow lava, serpentinites, gabbros, and chert