Biodiversity

EFT1023

Lecture 2
Introduction to Kingdom
Monera
 Kingdom Monera Characteristics

 They are primitive organisms.

 All organisms of the kingdom are prokaryotes.
 They are present in both living and non-living environment.
 They can survive in harsh and extreme climatic conditions like in hot
springs, acidic soils etc.
 Habitat - Monerans are found everywhere in hot springs, under ice,
in deep ocean floor, in deserts and on or inside the body of plants
and animals.
Cont’
 They are unicellular organisms.
 Membrane bound nucleus is absent.
 DNA is in double stranded form, suspended in the
cytoplasm of the organism, referred as nucleoid.
 A rigid cell wall is present.
 Membrane bound cellular organelles like mitochondria are
absent.
 Movement - is with the help of flagella.
 Classification of Kingdom Monera

 Kingdom Monera has been classified into two groups:

a) Archaebacteria
b) Eubacteria
 a. Archaebacteria
• Archaebacteria are microbes that live in extreme and
harsh conditions, they are known as extremophiles.
• These bacteria lack cell wall, their cell membrane is
made up of different lipids, and their ribosomes are similar
to that of eukaryotes.
• Classified into 3 groups based on their habitat
i. Methanogens
ii. Thermopiles
iii. Halophiles
• Some extremophiles live in boiling water like geysers and in
volcanoes. These are known as 'thermophiles'.

• Some extremophiles live in extremely salty water, the salt loving

bacteria are known as 'halophiles'.

• Some bacteria are present in the guts of ruminants and are

responsible for production of methane gas from their dung.
These bacteria are known as 'methanogens'.

** High T, high salt concentrations & low pH

(conditions on the primitive earth)
The hot springs of Yellowstone National Park,
USA, were among the first places Archaea were
discovered.
i. Methanogens
 Able to produce CH4 (methane) from the organic matters
 Live in the gut of animals and swamps
 Important as decomposer and used in treatment of wastes.
 Use CO2 as a carbon source and H (hydrogen) as energy source
 Methane gas (CH4) as their end product.
 Ecologically important to remove excess H from environment
 Methanogen metabolism process is known to create most of natural
gas – use as domestic or industrial energy source.
 ii. Thermophiles
 They can survive in high T (60°C -100°C) and highly acidic
environment (pH 1 -2)
 Live in hot spring, volcanic and hydrothermal vent (able to
withstand with high T)

Provide significant insight that lead to

the discovery of novel enzymes and
interesting medical properties
Used as enzyme in DNA
fingerprinting, biological detergents
and convert organic matter into
nutrient for plants

Orange and yellow colonies of thermophilic

prokaryotes in the hot water of a Nevada geyser
iii. Halophiles
 Require environment 10x more saline than ocean.
 Able to balance the osmotic pressure, resist denaturing
effects of salts.
 Use potassium (K) and other chemical substances (sugar,
alcohol and amino acids), balance osmotic pressure.
 Live in hypersaline environments like saturated brine and salt
ponds such as the Dead Sea.
 b. Eubacteria
• Eubacteria are true bacteria.

• Characteristic feature
- Presence of rigid cell wall
- A motile flagelllum that aids in locomotion (if present)
- Characterized based on their nutrition and their shapes
• Bacteria are the smallest
organisms (1-10 µm)
• It contains a cell wall (provides
support and protection for the
contents of the cell)
• The cytoplasm contains
ribosomes (responsible for the
formation of proteins and DNA)
• The DNA forms a single
chromosome and forms a ring
rather than a strand.
• Some bacteria are
motile by having one
to multiple flagella
(act like propellers
moving the organism
forward)
• Some are covered by
a slime capsule.
Classification of Bacteria
Adapted from Black, 2007
 a. Classification based on Morphology
• Bacteria can be classified in four groups based on shape :
- Spherical or round shaped bacteria (cocci)
- Rod-shaped (bacilli)
- Comma-shaped bacteria (vibrio)
- Spiral shaped bacteria (spirilla)

Spherical/round (cocci) Rod (bacilli) Comma-shaped (vibrio) Spiral (spirilla)

Usually bacteria are named based on their

morphological characteristics and given special
prefixes such as diplo-, strepto- and staphylo-
• Cocci living as separate cells are called monococci, pairs
are called diplococci, chains are called streptococci, and
grapelike clusters are called staphylococci.
• Bacilli also exist as single cells, pairs (diplobacilli), or
chains (streptobacilli).
• Spiral bacteria exist only as single cells.
b. Classification Based on Mode of Nutrition

• Based on the mode of nutrition bacteria are broadly classified into

Autotrophic and Heterotrophic.
Cont’
• Autotrophic bacteria - Bacteria which prepare their own food are
autotrophic. (Example Cyanobacteria; blue-green bacteria).
- Chemosynthetic : bacteria are those which prepare their food with the
help of inorganic substrates.
- Photosynthetic bacteria are autotrophic bacteria which prepare their own
food by the process of photosynthesis..

* Cyanobacteria - They have chlorophyll similar to plants and hence they are
photosynthetic autotrophs. The marine and terrestrial and they may be unicellular,
colonial or filamentous. The colonies are surrounded by gelatinous sheath. They can
also fix atmospheric nitrogen.
Cont’
• Heterotrophic bacteria

- Dependent on other organism either directly or indirectly for their

nutrition.
- Most abundant and are important decomposers.
- Some are helpful in curdling milk, production of antibiotics, in
nitrogen fixation and some are pathogens.

- Can be parasitic and saprophytic:

~ Parasitic bacteria: depend on the host for nutrition and cause
harm to the host.
~ Saprophytic bacteria: feed on dead and decaying matter.
Cont’
- Symbiosis: a close, long term relationship between two
organisms; includes mutualism, commensalism and
parasitism.
- Mutualism: both organisms benefit due to relationship
- Commensalism: one organism benefits but the other isn't
adversely affected.
 c. Classification based on Gram's staining
Gram's staining:
- Is a test on cell walls developed by Hans Christian Gram.
- This method helps classifying bacteria into Gram positive bacteria
and Gram negative bacteria.

Gram Positive Bacteria - The bacteria's
cell wall is made up of protein-sugar
complex that takes on purple color
during gram staining.
Gram Negative Bacteria - The gram negative
bacteria has an extra layer of lipid on the outside
of the cell wall and appear pink during the Gram
staining procedure.
 Gram Staining

A method designed to distinguish Gram +ve cells from Gram -ve cells based
on cell wall composition. Invented by Hans Christian Gram, a Danish scientist
in the late 1800′s.
 Equipment
• Inoculating loop • Gram stain reagent set
• Bunsen Burner – Crystal violet : primary stain
• Glass microscope slide – – Gram’s iodine: mordant/fixative
clean – (95% alcohol): decolorizer
• Pipette (disposable) – Safranin: dilute carbol fuchsin-
• Clasp (close pin, or counterstain
tongs) • Microscope (preferably with oil
immersion lens)

© 2014 Board of Regents, South Dakota

State University iGrow.org
 Principle
Crystal Violet : all bacteria take crystal violet; so all appears
crystal violet.

Iodine: Crystal Violet-Iodin (CV-I) complex is formed.

Alcohol/Acetone: gram –ve bacteria with high lipid content loose

CV-I complex (appear colourless) but : gram +ve bacteria with
less lipid content retain CV-I complex (appear violet).

Safranin/ dilute carbol fuchsin: only colourless bacteria (gram –

ve) takes-appear pink.
© 2014 Board of Regents, South Dakota
State University iGrow.org
Gram Staining Method
 Gram Positive Bacteria
• Gram +ve bacteria have thick cell walls made of peptidoglycan
• Retaining the crystal violet stain  stained purple.
• Generally less pathogenic than gram –ve
• E.g. actinomycetes, lactic acid bacteria, mycobacteria,
streptococci, staphylococci and clostridia.
 Gram Negative Bacteria
• The Gram -ve bacteria have thinner layer of
peptidoglycan.
• Does not retain crystal violet stain  stained red
(safranin)
• Mostly are pathogenic.
Bacterial Growth Pattern
Lag phase (Fasa Adaptasi)
- Very little to no bacterial growth.
- The bacteria are adjusting to the environment, growing in size, synthesizing
biochemicals, and storing up nutrients.
- The length of the lag phase depends on the environmental conditions the bacteria are
in and the overall health of the cells.

Log phase (Fasa Pertumbuhan)

- Bacterial cells doubling at a constant, exponential rate.
- Disease symptoms occur as the rising population cause greater and greater tissue
damage in the host.

Stationary phase (Fasa Pegun)

- A state where the growth and death rate is equal, until the total number of bacteria
living is fix.
- Some bacteria usually produce secondary metabolites such as antibiotics and
polymer.

Death Phase (Fasa Kematian)

- The death rate exceeded the rate of bacterial growth due to the expiration of the
amount of food in the medium; bacterial growth ceases
- Bad state of the environment (not useful metabolites); disturbing growth of bacteria.
 Reproduction in Bacteria
• Vegetative Reproduction
- Budding
- Fragmentation
- Binary fission
• Asexual Reproduction
- Endosprore formation, conidia and zoo
spores
• Sexual Reproduction
- Transformation
- Transduction
- Conjugation
 Vegetative Reproduction
• Budding
- A form of asexual reproduction in which a new individual
develops from some generative anatomical point of the
parent organism.
- In some species buds may be produced from almost any
point of the body, but in many cases budding is restricted
to
specialized areas.
- The initial protuberance of proliferating cytoplasm or cells,
the bud, eventually develops into an organism duplicating
the parent. The new individual may separate to exist
independently, or the buds may remain attached, forming
aggregates or colonies.
Vegetative Reproduction
• Bacteria reproduce asexually
and divide by the process of
binary fission ("division in
half").
• The parent cell divides into 2
offspring cells that are
completely identical.
• There is no exchange of
genetic material so the
process is asexual.
 Asexual Reproduction
• A bacterial spore is a structure • Types of spores:
produced by bacteria that is - endospores, exospores, and
resistant to many environmental spore-like structures (microbial
or induced factors that the cysts)
bacteria may be subjected to.
• Most bacterial spores are not
toxic and cause little harm, but
some bacteria that produce
spores can be pathogenic.
• Most spore-forming bacteria are
contained in the bacillus and
clostridium species
 Sexual Reproduction
Transformation Transduction Conjugation
- Transfer of genetic - Transfer of genetic materials - Transfer of genetic
materials from bacteria or through mediators, usually materials among
other organisms without virus, especially bacteria through
any physical contact or bacteriophage (virus that physical contact
mediators. infect bacteria). using a structure
called pilus.
- The genetic materials come - The genetic materials
into the bacterium through packaged inside the
specific transporter on the bacteriophage head.
cell membrane.
- Transfers bacterial gene into
the bacteria.
a)Transformation
– Fragment DNA released by a
cell (or a dead cell) are taken
in by another bacterial cell.
b) Transduction
– A transferring process from one bacterial cell to another bacterial
cell by viruses/ Vector.
1. A phage infects a susceptible bacterium
and injects its DNA into the host.
2. The phage DNA proceeds to TAKE
OVER the host's entire metabolism, then
directs the synthesis of PHAGE
PARTS or COMPONENTS, including
phage DNA.
3. The VARIOUS COMPONENT PARTS in
the cytoplasm are ASSEMBLED into
COMPLETE PHAGE and the cell is
broken open or LYSED, releasing the
newly made phage particles.
4. During the assembly process, occasional
RARE MISTAKES are made and bits of
the host's bacterial DNA become
incorporated INTO THE NEW PHAGE.
5. Since there is NO ROOM FOR PHAGE
DNA in these situations DEFECTIVE
PHAGE are made.
6. However, these defective phage still
have the ability to bind and INSERT their
DNA into a host bacterial cell.
c) Conjugation – genes are transferred
.
directly from a single bacterium to another
 Respiration
• Cellular respiration in bacteria differ in (require oxygen or not)
• If respiration requires oxygen  aerobes.
• If oxygen is absolutely necessary for survival  obligate
aerobes.
• Bacteria that carry out respiration without oxygen 
anaerobes.
• If the presence of oxygen kills some bacteria  obligate
anaerobes.
• Another group of bacteria can survive with or without oxygen
 facultative anaerobes.
 Importance of Bacteria

1. Biogeochemical – play an important role in recycling

nutrients including nitrogen, oxygen, carbon, phosphorous,
sulphur and trace element
2. Decomposition of organic matter. E.g. Actinomycetes sp. and
Mycobacteria sp.
3. Primary production – photosynthetic bacteria like
Cynobacteria (blue green algae).
4. Food fermentation (Lactic acid bacteria eg: Lactobacillus and
Lactococcus)

5. Pest control

6. Oil spill clean up

7. Spot removers, meat tenderizers, laundry starches.
 Kingdom Monera Examples

The Monerans comprises of mostly bacteria:

• Blue-green algae - Cyanobacteria

• Cocci shaped bacteria -Streptococcus
• Bacilli shaped bacteria - E.coli,
• Vibrio shaped - Vibrio cholerae (cholera)
• Spiral shaped bacteria - Treponema pallidum (syphilis).
Gram positive bacteria - Mycobacterium
• Gram negative bacteria - E.coli (coliforms)

Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus vulgaris,

Streptococcus pyogens, Clostridium botulinum, Listeria
monocytogenes, Salmonella enterica, Vibrio cholerae, Bacillus
anthracis, Bacillus cereus.
REVIEW#Q
1. In five kingdom system of classification of Whittaker, prokaryotes belong
to
A. Protista C. Monera
B. Mycota D. Prokaryota
E. Fungi

2. Name the organisms which do not derive energy directly or indirectly from

sun
A. Chemosynthetic bacteria B. Pathogenic bacteria
C. Symbiotic bacteria D. Mould.
E. Thermophiles

3. Which of the following would be classified as Archaea?

A. thermoacidophiles B. halophiles
C. methanogens D. all of the above

4. Which of the following plants is found in large number in soil?

A. Fungi B. Algae
C. Bacteria D. Cyanobacteria
E. Mycorrhizae

.
5. The main difference between Gram +ve and Gram -ve bacteria lies in
A. Cell wall B. Pili
C. Flagella D. Plasmids
E. chromosomes

6. Escherichia coli is used extensively in biological research as it is

A. Easily cultured B. Easily available
C. Easy to handle D. Easily multiplied in host
E. Not a pathogen

7. Which statement is correct for bacterial transduction?

A. Transfer of some genes from one bacteria to another bacteria through
virus
B. Transfer of genes from one bacteria to another bacteria by conjugation
C. Bacteria obtained its DNA directly from mother cell
D. Bacteria obtained DNA from other external source.
E. Fragment DNA released by a cell (or a dead cell) are taken in by
another bacterial cell.
REVIEW#A
1. In five kingdom system of classification of Whittaker, prokaryotes belong
to
A. Protista C. Monera
B. Mycota D. Prokaryota
E. Fungi

2. Name the organisms which do not derive energy directly or indirectly from

sun
A. Chemosynthetic bacteria B. Pathogenic bacteria
C. Symbiotic bacteria D. Mould.
E. Thermophiles

3. Which of the following would be classified as Archaea?

A. thermoacidophiles B. halophiles
C. methanogens D. all of the above

4. Which of the following plants is found in large number in soil?

A. Fungi B. Algae
C. Bacteria D. Cyanobacteria
E. Mycorrhizae

.
5. The main difference between Gram +ve and Gram -ve bacteria lies in
A. Cell wall B. Pili
C. Flagella D. Plasmids
E. chromosomes

6. Escherichia coli is used extensively in biological research as it is

A. Easily cultured B. Easily available
C. Easy to handle D. Easily multiplied in host
E. Not a pathogen

7. Which statement is correct for bacterial transduction?

A. Transfer of some genes from one bacteria to another bacteria
through virus
B. Transfer of genes from one bacteria to another bacteria by conjugation
C. Bacteria obtained its DNA directly from mother cell
D. Bacteria obtained DNA from other external source.
E. Fragment DNA released by a cell (or a dead cell) are taken in by
another bacterial cell.