PSYCHOLOGY – SSC 210

Lahore School of Economics

Hirra Rana
Critical thinking in psychology, is a type of reflection that involves
asking whether a particular belief can be supported by scientific theory
and observation (Yanchar, Slife, & Warne, 2008).
 Thinking critically about psychology begins with the careful
recording of facts and events, the heart of all sciences. To be
scientific, our observations must be systematic, so that they reveal
something reliable about behavior (Stanovich, 2010).
 Scientific method
The approach through which psychologists systematically acquire knowledge and
understanding about behavior and other phenomena of interest.

 1. Making observations
 2. Defining a problem
 3. Proposing a hypothesis
 4. Gathering evidence/testing the hypothesis
 5. Building a theory
 6. Publishing results
Psychologists ask questions about the nature and causes of behavior.

Once a question has been identified, the next step in the scientific method is to develop
a theory to explain the observed phenomenon.

Theories: are broad explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest.

Hypothesis is a prediction stated in a way that allows it to be tested. Hypothesis
come from theories; they help test the underlying soundness of theories.

Hypothesis— A statement of the predicted outcome of an experiment or an educated

guess about the relationship between variables.
What exactly is a “hypothesis”?

A hypothesis is a tentative statement , or explanation of, an event or relationship. In

common terms, a hypothesis is a testable hunch or educated guess about behavior.

For example, you might hypothesize :

“Frustration encourages aggression.” How could you test this hypothesis?
 First you would have to decide how you are going to frustrate people.

 Then you will need to find a way to measure whether they become more
aggressive.

 Your observations would then provide evidence to confirm or disconfirm your

hypothesis.
Because we cannot see or touch frustration, we must define it operationally.

 An operational definition states the exact procedures used to represent a concept.

Operational definition :
The translation of a hypothesis into specific, testable procedures that can be measured
and observed.

In other words, covert behaviors are operationally defined in terms of overt behavior so
they can be observed and studied scientifically.

For example:
 “hunger” might be defined as “the number of hours of food deprivation.”
 Conducting Psychological Research

Research —systematic inquiry aimed at the discovery of new knowledge is a

central ingredient of the scientific method in psychology.

It provides the key to understanding the degree to which hypothesis (and the
theories behind them) are accurate.
 Descriptive research designed to systematically
investigate a person, group, or patterns of behavior. These methods include

1. Archival research
2. Naturalistic observation
3. Survey research
4. Case studies.

Archival research
Research in which existing data, such as documents, college records, and
newspaper clippings, are examined to test a hypothesis.
Naturalistic observation
 Research in which an investigator simply observes some
naturally occurring behavior, And does not make a change in
the situation.

The important point to remember about naturalistic observation

is that the researcher simply records what occurs, making no
modification in the situation that is being observed
(Moore, 2002; Rustin, 2006; Schutt, 2001).
Case study An in-depth, intensive investigation of an individual or small group of
people.

 A case study is an in-depth, intensive investigation of a single individual or a

small group.

 Case studies often include psychological testing ,

A procedure in which a carefully designed set

of questions is used to gain some insight into
the personality of the individual or group
(Addus,Chen,&Khan,2007;Gass et al.,2000).
SURVEY RESEARCH

Survey research is defined as "the collection of information

from a sample of individuals through their responses to
questions" (Check & Schutt, 2012).

• This type of research allows for a variety of methods to

recruit participants, collect data, and utilize various
methods of instrumentation. Survey research can use
quantitative research strategies

(e.g., using questionnaires with numerically rated items),

qualitative research strategies (e.g., using open-ended
questions), or both strategies
 Correlational research
Research in which the relationship between two sets of variables is examined to
determine whether they are associated, or “correlated.”

Variables:
Behaviors, events, or other characteristics that can change, or vary, in some way.
 Experimental Research

The investigation of the relationship between two (or more) variables by deliberately
producing a change in one variable in a situation and observing the effects of that
change on other aspects of the situation.
Outline of a Research Report

• Abstract Research reports begin with a very brief summary of the study and its findings. The
abstract allows you to get an overview without reading the entire article.

• introduction The introduction describes the question to be investigated. It also provides

background information by reviewing prior studies on the same or related topics.

• Method This section tells how and why observations were made. It also describes the specific
procedures used to gather data. That way, other researchers can repeat the study to see if they get the
same results.

• Results The outcome of the investigation is presented. Data may be graphed, summarized in tables,
or statistically analyzed.

• Discussion The results of the study are discussed in relation to the original question. Implications of
the study are explored and further studies may be proposed.
 The Ethics of Research

These guidelines involve the following safeguards:

• Protection of participants from physical and mental harm.

• The right of participants to privacy regarding their behavior.

• The assurance that participation in research is completely voluntary.

• The necessity of informing participants about the nature of procedures before their
participation in the experiment.

(American Psychological Association, 2002)