Introduction to

Occupational Safety and

Health
 International Labour
Organisation Statistics
• Every three minutes a worker
somewhere in the world dies from an
occupational accident or from an
occupational disease.
• Every second at least three injuries
are caused worldwide by an
occupational accident.
 Key Trend
Data on occurrence of occupational
accidents in the industrialized
countries shows that there has been a
significant reduction in the absolute
number of fatal accidents and in the
death rate per 100,000 workers while
the number of injuries resulting from
occupational accidents has not
decreased significantly.
 Reasons for the Decline
in Fatalities
• Growing awareness of matters of safety and
health among workers and management.
• Safer machinery and equipment are being
used.
• Hazardous jobs have been eliminated by
increased mechanisation and automation
and
• New legislation has imposed stricter safety
requirements for machinery and equipment.
 The Safety Situation in
the Developing
Countries
• The rate of fatal occupational accidents is
several times higher than in industrialized
countries, and
• The sectoral pattern of the occurrence of
fatal accidents is the same as in
industrialized countries with higher rates
in the construction and in the mining
industry than in the manufacturing sector.
 Reasons for the Poor
Situation in Developing
Countries
• Serious lack of safety awareness among
management and workers.
• Much of the machinery and equipment is
not fitted with the proper safety guards
• Lack of personal protective equipment.
• Poor housekeeping and
• There is a vast informal sector where the
young, least skilled and least experienced
are employed and exposed to hazardous
working conditions.
 The Cost of Accidents
• Direct costs include the salaries paid to
injured workers during their absence from
work, the costs for medical treatment and
any compensation to which an injured
worker is entitled because of the loss of
his earning capacity.
• In Tanzania, the Workmen's Compensation
Ordinance (Cap.263), which was
introduced in 1949 (and since then
amended several times), rules for such
compensation.
 The Cost of Accidents
• During temporary incapacity (i.e. absence
from work), after an accident 50 per cent
of the salary is to be compensated but
most employers continue to pay the full
salary, especially to their permanent staff.

• In the case of full permanent incapacity

the compensation is 54 monthly earnings
with a maximum of Tshs. 108,000/= (in
1985).
 The Cost of Accidents
• The indirect costs which are more difficult
to estimate include the costs for time lost
(i.e. the costs for idle machinery including
overhead costs and the value of lost
production) by the injured worker and
other personnel, the damage to machinery
tools and other equipment and any
incidental costs because of interference
with normal operations.
• Indirect costs are several times as high as
the direct costs; factors of between 2 and
4 have been mentioned.
 Safety Awareness and
Accident Prevention
Efforts
• On an international level by the
International Labour Organisation
• On the national level by Government
agencies, professional associations,
safety councils and educational
institutions
• Within factories (or other business
entities) through the commitment of
management and the involvement of the
workers and their representative
 Main Definitions
• Accident is an unplanned and undesirable event
that interrupts an intended ongoing activity and
that may result in injury or property damage.
• Hazard is a condition with the potential of
causing injury to personnel, damage to
equipment or structures, loss of material, or
lessening of ability to perform a prescribed
function.
• Danger express a relative exposure to a hazard.
A hazard may be present, but there may be little
danger because of precautions taken.
 Main Definitions
• Damage is the severity of injury or
physical, functional or monetary loss that
could result if control of a hazard is lost.
• Risk is indicated by the probability of an
accident times the damage in money
terms, lives, or operating units.
• Safety is "freedom from hazards".
However, it is practically impossible to
completely eliminate all hazards. Safety is
therefore a matter of relative protection
from exposure to hazards
 Man-Machine System
• Why and how do accidents occur?
• What real goes wrong and lead to
accidents?
• Understanding of man-machine
system interaction can help respond
to these questions
 Man-Machine System
detect signal display signal
process

M a c h in e
information
M an

operates
decides
receives
responds response
 Man-machine System
• An accident-free flow will be
achieved, if the loop is not disturbed.

• A disturbance of the loop, which can

result in an accident, can be caused
either by human failure or by machine
failure.
 Man-machine System
The proper functioning of the loop depends on
the following working conditions
• the workplace: the conditions of machines,
equipment, tools, and work methods
• the worker: his education, training, attitude
and experience
• the inputs: materials, energy
• the outputs: semi-finished goods, final
products, by-products, waste
• the environment: climatic conditions (heat,
noise, dust, illumination) and social factors
(condition and terms of employment, relations
between worker and supervisor or colleagues)
Accidents due to Unsafe
Acts vs. Unsafe
Conditions
• In a study of 75,000 accidents, it
was established the much quoted
88:10:2 ratio, meaning that out
100 accidents 88 were caused by
unsafe acts, ten by unsafe
conditions while two were due to
conditions which could not have
been prevented.
HAZARD ANALYIS
 Hazard Classification
• Mechanical hazards - sliding motions of
machines, rotating parts, run-in or nip points,
rolling objects, impacts by flying objects,
sharp corners, poorly finished surfaces, etc.
• Electrical hazards - static electricity, bare
electrical installations, high tension and
voltages cables.
• Chemical hazards - fire, explosion,
corrosion, contamination by toxic substances,
etc.
• Physical hazards - air pollution, climate,
illumination, noise and vibration, radiation
 Hazard Classification
• Biological hazards - virus, bacteria, fungi,
contagious diseases
• Physiological hazards - Physically heavy
work load, unsuitable tools and equipment,
unsuitable working methods
• Psychical and social hazards -
Unsatisfactory workplace and working
environment, personal problems, family
problems, problem working with colleague,
etc.
 Hazard Identification
and Analysis
• There are several methods for
identification and analysis of hazards of
single workplaces or complex work
systems.
• The identification of hazards is essential
to preventing the occurring of accidents,
which could cause severe damage, injury
and human loss
 1: Job Safety Analysis
• Job Safety Analysis (JSA), is applied to
make the job safer and to prevent
accidents.
• JSA deals with a particular job out of the
many jobs in a unit, which is analysed by
asking a number of questions such as:
• Who performs the job? (Qualification requirement
for the performance of that particular job).
• Which is the task of each worker? (Division of
work).
• Which tools and equipment are utilized to carry
out the job?
 Job Safety Analysis cont’d

• Which are the hazards inherent in the

job?
• Which unsafe acts or conditions
could cause an accident?
• How can a worker avoid risks?
• Which is the PPE needed to be used
by the worker?
 2: Risk Assessment
• Risk assessment is a method for
identification of risks in work systems.
• In risk assessment the hazards of a
system are identified and the probability
of the occurrence of an accident and the
expected effects are assessed.
• Hazards of the work system are identified
using JSA, and regarding the probability
of occurrence of accidents, it may be
sufficient to distinguish between low,
medium and high probability.
 Risk Assessment cont’d
• The emphasis of risk assessment is
on identifying unsafe conditions and
on setting priorities in hazard
control.
• Accidents which are rated with a low
probability of occurrence but whose
effects are widespread with severe
consequences need particular
attention because once they happen
they can be catastrophic.
 3: Failure Mode and Effect
Analysis (FMEA)
• The basic idea of FMEA is to break down a
system into its components.
• For each component the possible modes
of failure are identified and their effects on
personnel, hardware and system are
described.
• A further step in FMEA is to determine the
probability of failure and severity of failure
• The probability of the occurrence of a
failure can be rated based on existing
records, calculated by a system analysis
or estimated based on good judgment.
HAZARD CONTROL
 The Possibilities of
Hazard Control
Element Hazard Man Effectiveness

Control Through
Elimination of the hazard - x
Most effective

Removal of man from the x -

exposure to the hazard

Isolation of the hazard x x

Protection of man x x least effective

 The Human Factor
One of the most important
factors in the cause of
accidents and in their
prevention is the attitude of
the worker, which is referred
to as the "human factor" in
occupational safety.
 Attitudes Towards Safety
WHY DO WORKERS DO A JOB
IN AN UNSAFE WAY WHEN
THEY COULD DO IT IN A
SAFE WAY?
• The unsafe way is seen as easier, less
trouble­some and “even safer”
• The unsafe way is seen as the “best one”
• Unaware of the safe working practice
• Safety precautions may be considered to
be unnecessary constraints,
• Bravado – dangerous show of bravery
 General Attitude of
Workers: External Locus of
Control
• In Tanzania, workers are often
unaware of the possibilities of
accident prevention and consider
accidents as unavoidable afflictions
that have to be suffered.
• Much can be done to change this
attitude by placing suitable emphasis
on safety awareness and training.
 Complication in
Improving Positive
Attitude towards Safety
• It should not be forgotten that a
person needs a strong imagination
to realize what an accident really can
mean to him/her.
• It is very difficult to realize what
losing a leg or one’s eyesight means
and to put oneself in the place of a
man who has.
 The Worker’s
Environment and
Frequency of Accidents

• The worker's environment is an

important psychological factor to be
considered in occupational safety.
• It has been observed that the
frequency of accidents is influenced
by the general atmosphere
 What makes a Poor
Work Environment?
• bad relations between employers
and workers
• dissatisfaction of the workers with
salaries, working hours and working
conditions
• poor industrial relations and care for
the workers' welfare
 What makes a Good
Work Environment?
• Reasonable salaries
• Good human relations
• Good understanding between
management and labour
• Correct decisions on questions of
promotion, well-cared-for work­
places, good sanitary facilities and
welfare services
 Peace of mind is
another important
psychological factor in
occupational safety

• It is not only dependent on

conditions at the workplace but on
living conditions outside the
company as well.
 Peace of mind
• Living in inadequate housing and problems
in the family will adversely influence a
worker's attitude towards his job what is
likely to increase the rate of accidents.
• Another factor is insecurity of employment.
When workers fear dismissal they may well
be in an unbalanced state of mind which
will make them more liable to have an
accident.
 Fatigue and Boredom
• What is fatigue?
• What Causes fatigue?
• The degree of the influence of fatigue
will depend on the interest, which a
worker takes in his job: fatigue will be
felt less by a worker who is interested in
his work than by a worker who lacks
this interest.
 Fatigue and Boredom
• What is boredom?
• Refers to loosing interested on what one is
doing
• It depends to a high degree on whether he
likes his work or not which is again influenced
by the working environment
• Elements, which will contribute to augment
his interest in and satisfaction from his job,
such as responsibility for the work,
appreciation by management, being kept
informed about developments in the
company, will also tend to decrease his
liability to accidents
 The Impact of Fatigue
and Boredom
Research has shown that the greater the
fatigue and boredom, the greater the risk of
an accident.

Fatigue and boredom will reduce a worker's

attention and his speed of action as well as
the care, which he takes over his work.

Accidents are often not so much related to

physical fatigue as to the mental attitude
 Worker Experience and
Inexperience
The frequency of accidents among
newcomers is relatively high.

This may be explained by their lack of

experience and by the fact that they are not
yet familiar with the working environment
and that their attention is distracted by the
many new impressions.
 Worker Experience and
Inexperience
• The familiarity of experienced workers
with the working environment and with
their job often has an adverse effect on
their accident rate as is shown by the high
number of accidents on electric circuits
which befall electricians.
• Man tends to neglect safety measures and
to become careless if no serious
accidents have happened for some time,
assuming that there was less risk than he
had been told.
 Accident Proneness
Statistics show that certain workers
have no accidents while others who
are exposed to the same risks have
several accidents during the same
period.

These latter ones are usually

described as "accident prone".
 Causes of Accident
Proneness
• Influence of such person factors as
distraction, nervousness and taking risks
out of bravado in order to show off.
• A person's physical condition and
psychological factors.
• Example: A person might not be aware of
a reduced faculty of sight or hearing and it
is up to a medical examination to identify
such handicaps and either correct them or
suggest a suitable alternative workplace
for the person concerned.
 Causes of Accident
Proneness
• There are degrees of accident proneness that are
influenced by psychological factor while one
disadvantageous factor such as vanity may not
particularly dangerous.
• A combination of several such factors e.g. vanity,
carelessness, nervousness, probably will be more
dangerous.
• People who are aware of their predispositions can
do much to keep them under control
Compliance with safety
and health standards
 Providing a hazard-free
working place
• To provide a hazard-free working place
means to consider safety and health
standards when building a new plant or
when procuring new machines or
equipment and to maintain these in a safe
working condition.
• The best way to ensure compliance with
these standards is to consider them
already in the planning or evaluating stage
of a project and not only as an
afterthought when it has almost been
completed.
 Advance safety
inspection
When a plant or a factory is to be built or extended
the owner of the establishment can be required to
submit the plans for the project to the competent
authority for the registration or approval.

When the plans have to be approved the authority

will scrutinize them to ensure compliance with
safety and health standards.

Such an “advance safety inspection" is therefore an

effective means to provide a hazard-free working
place later when the project will be implemented.
 Procurement of
Facilities
• Machines and equipment must
comply with safety and health
standards
• These standards must be considered
when designing, constructing,
procuring and installing the facility.
 To consider safety
aspects in the design
stage means to
• choose the appropriate materials;
• choose the appropriate design;
• observe the relevant standards and
regulations;
• choose appropriate colours and symbols
for machine controls and displays and to
arrange them for efficient and error-free
operation.
 When constructing the
facility
• It is essential that the compliance with the
design is ensured and that no one-sided
alterations are made.
• For facilities, which are to be procured,
clarify whether:
– the facility could be a hazard for the personnel
or the environment;
– environmental conditions in the procuring
company require additional precautions;
– the facility complies with internal safety
standards of the procuring company.
 The installation of the facility
must be done in such a way that
it will not be hazardous for the
worker or the environment.
- provide enough space for the worker
at the workplace;
- separate the worker from any hazard
of the facility;
- provide personal protective
equipment and to take any further
necessary precautions.
 Periodic Safety
Inspections
• For operating plants, it is necessary to
carry out periodic safety inspections.
• The purpose of these inspections is to:
– ensure that workplaces remain free of hazards;
- ensure that hazards which cannot be
eliminated are isolated
- ensure that personal protective equipment is
used when and where required
- ensure that safe working practices are applied
- follow up on previous safety measures.
 Periodic safety checks
• In addition to the periodic safety
inspections, it can be expedient to carry
out periodic checks at weekly, fortnightly
or monthly intervals.
• These are carried out by the supervisor of
the respective area with the aim to ensure
that safety precautions which could easily
be neglected in everyday operations are
maintained.
• A checklist similar to the one used for
safety inspections can be compiled, listing
the items to be checked and the
corresponding safety precautions.
 Safety education
Purpose of Safety Education:
- accept safety as being part of
occupational activities;
- recognize hazards and take action to
prevent accidents;
- encourage safe working practices.
 Safety education
• Safety education begins with proper
instruction.
• The aim of the instruction is that the
worker understands:
– WHAT he is doing;
– HOW he is doing it;
– WHY he is doing it in that way.
 Enforcement and
enthusiasm
• Need to make sure that the plant has a safety
management structure for, among other things,
enforcing the safety and health standards
• This enforcement also includes considering
safety as an integral part of planning
procedures; to include safety matters in
managerial reporting and to consider safety
when assessing the performance of a profit
centre, department or workshop; to discuss
safety matters with the worker’s representatives
and to promote safety rules and regulations.
 Enforcement and
enthusiasm
• Compliance and enforcement should be
achieved through education and
persuasion rather than through coercive
measures such as reprimands or fines.
• Enthusiasm will grow out of the expertise
which has been acquired and out of
successes which have been achieved.
• These must be supported by additional
inputs such as appreciation,
encouragement, rewarding and further
education.
 END OF THE
PRESENTATION

Thank you for listening

 DISCUSSION TOPICS
• What should be the main elements of health /and
safety organization?
• Sometimes health and safety issues require
mainly common sense. But why does it seem to
be a huge task to control the number and severity
of occupational health and safety accidents?
• It is argued that any health and safety programme
which does not involved the operational workers
will not have the desired impact. Comment
• Many people claim that funding is the main
constraint. How critical is the role of financing to
adequate safety management