Material Science

Metal properties
• Hardness :
Hardness is the resistance of a material to localised plastic
deformation.
Hardness is a measure of how much a material resists changes
in shape. Hard things resist pressure.
Some examples of hard materials are diamond, boron carbide,
quartz, tempered steel, ice, granite, concrete. Ability of
material to resist wear, tear, scratching, abrasion cutting is
called hardness.
It is important when looking for a suitable material for an
environment that includes little particles that can induce
material wear. Soft materials suffer indentations while hard
ones resist to any change in shape
 Hardness

• Hardness is the measure of a material’s resistance to localised

permanent deformation. Permanent deformation is also
called plastic deformation.
• While elastic deformation means that a material changes its
shape only during the application of force, a resulting plastic
deformation means that the material will not return to its
original shape.
• Some materials are naturally hard.
• For example, tungsten is an incredibly hard metal that finds
use as an alloying element in tool steel. This makes sure that
this group of steels can resist wear even at high temperatures
during cutting operations
 Hardness

• The three types of hardness are scratch, rebound, and

indentation hardness. Measuring each type of hardness
requires a different set of tools. Also, the same material will
have different hardness values for each of the above-
mentioned types.
• Indentation Hardness
• This hardness type refers to the resistance to permanent
deformation when subjecting a material to a continuous load.
• Indentation hardness is what engineers and metallurgists
usually refer to when they talk about hardness. Measuring its
value is of primary interest as continuous loading is the most
common form of loading metals are subjected to.
• Scratch Hardness
• This type of hardness refers to a material’s ability to resist
scratches on the surface. Scratches are narrow continuous
indentations in the upper layer due to contact with a sharp,
harder material.
• Scratch testing is also commonly used for brittle materials
such as ceramics as they do not undergo significant plastic
deformation. It is important to consider scratch hardness as
some material applications are highly sensitive to scoring.
• Rebound or Dynamic Hardness
• Rebound hardness has more to do with elastic hardness than
plastic hardness. The material absorbs the energy on impact
and returns it to the indenter.
• An indenter is a reference material used for hardness testing.
Dynamic hardness is usually measured by dropping a
diamond-tipped hammer on the test piece and recording the
hammer’s bounce after it strikes the surface.
• The closer the height to the original dropping height, the
higher the value for rebound hardness.
Hardness Testing
 Units for Hardness
• The SI unit of hardness is N/mm². The unit Pascal is thus used
for hardness as well but hardness must not be confused with
pressure.
• Measuring Hardness
• The various types of hardness are measured using different
testing methods. A commonality among all methods is the use
of an indenter to create the indentation on the test piece
surface area. The indentation provides a tangible
representation of the hardness of materials and it is easy to
measure and replicate.
• Harder materials will have shallow indentations and softer
materials will have deeper indentations
 Different Hardness Tests
• Brinell Hardness (HB) : Common method of measuring harness
Uses a ball of about 10 mm dia. Force applied is usually 3000 kg but
for softer material it can be as low as 500 kg. Force is applied for 30
seconds and then the indentation is measured with a microscope
• Rockwell Hardness (HR) : In Rockwell hardness test, prior to
applying the testing load, a small minor load is applied to seat the
indenter into the test piece and remove the effect of any surface
irregularities. This provides better accuracy.
Then similar to the Brinell test, the indenter is used to create an
impression on the material by applying the testing load also known
as a major load. The impression is then measured for determining
the hardness. A dial gauge is used to record the deformation
There are various scales of Rockwell Hardness depending upon the
material.
• Vickers Hardness (HV) : Mainly used for softer materials.
Uses pyramid shape diamond tip.
• Mohs hardness : Used for the measurement of scratch
hardness. In this test, the material is scratched with a
reference material which has a defined hardness.
• Scleroscope Test : A scleroscope is a device used to measure
the rebound or dynamic hardness of materials. The setup
consists of a hollow vertical glass tube connected to a stand.
Through this tube, a diamond hammer is dropped onto the
test piece and the bounce of the hammer is recorded.
• The diamond hammer is dropped from a fixed height under
its own weight. On coming in contact with the test piece, the
hammer bounces back. This bounce will be higher for
materials with higher hardness.
 Metal properties
• Ductility : The physical property of a metal that can be drawn into the thin wire is called ductility or
ductility is the property of metal associated with the ability to be hammered thin or stretched into
wire without breaking. The degree of ductility occurs due to metallic bonds. There are two measures
required when calculating ductility:
• Elongation
• The increase in the gage length of the material, being subjected to tensile forces, divided by the
original gage length. The elongation is often expressed as a percentage of the original gage length.
• Use the following formula to calculate elongation:
• Elongation (%) = 100 x ∆L/Lo
Lo – the original gage length
∆L – the change in length after subjecting the material to tensile stress and causing a fracture.
• The reduction of the cross sectional area
• The second measure is the reduction of the cross-sectional area. This is also expressed as a
percentage and is calculated using this formula:
• Reduction of the C.A area (%) = 100 x (Ao – Af)/Ao
Ao is the original cross-sectional area.
Af is the cross-sectional area after the fracture occurs. It should be the narrowest part of the
material.
• Both of these figures are expressed as percentages and indicate the ductility of the material being
tested.
• While performing the tensile stress test, it’s important to note that temperature is a major factor in
the ductility of the tested metal.
 Ductility
• Parameters that Affect Ductility
• When conducting the tensile stress test, some parameters could affect
the results of the test. It’s not only vital to know what these parameters
are but also to keep them uniform to ensure the most accurate results.
• Gage length
• Gage length is a critical parameter to observe, when conducting a tensile
stress test. But as the gage length increases, the value of elongation
becomes less dependent on the gage length.
• Specimen dimensions
• The cross-sectional area of a specimen has a direct effect on the
elongation measures. It’s important to keep the specimen dimensions
uniform during the test to obtain accurate results.
• Test speed or strain rate
• A higher or faster strain will have an adverse effect on ductility hence
decreasing the elongation value. Brittle materials are more sensitive to
strain rate and the elongation values decrease, as strain rate increases
across the board
 Malleability and Ductility
• Malleability :
- Capability of being shaped or extended by hammering, forging, etc.
- Capability of being influenced or altered by external forces

• Malleability and ductility are related. A malleable material is one in

which a thin sheet can be easily formed by hammering or rolling. In
other words, the material has the ability to deform under
compressive stress
• In contrast, ductility is the ability of a solid material to deform under
tensile stress. Practically, a ductile material is a material that can
easily be stretched into a wire when pulled. Pulling is applying
tensile stress.
 Melting Point
• Melting point : is the temperature at which a given solid material changes from a
solid state to a liquid, or melts.
•
Metal Melting Point
• Carbon Steel 1425-1540°C (2597-2800°F)
• Stainless Steel 1375 – 1530°C (2500-2785°F)
• Aluminum 660°C (1220°F)
• Copper 1084°C (1983°F)
• Brass 930°C (1710°F)
• Zinc 420°C (787°F)
• Inconel 1390-1425°C (2540-2600°F)
• Nickel 1453°C (2647°F)
• Molybdenum 2620°C (4748°F)
• Silver 961°C (1762°F)
• Titanium 1670°C (3038°F)
• Tungsten 3400°C (6152°F)
 Common Engineering Metals and alloys
• Cast Iron
• Steel
• Stainless Steel
• Aluminium
• Copper
• Brass
• Bronze
• Monel alloy
• Inconel alloys
• Ceramics
• Industrial Plastics
• Rubber
 Cast Iron/ Steel
• Cast Iron : This is Fe-C Alloy with carbon exceeding 2 %
Other elements are Manganese and Silicon (0.5~ over 2 %)
Higher the carbon percentage, meting point is lower
• Cast iron has low ductility, but high compressive strength. It is brittle
in nature.
• Cast iron surface has porosity.

• Steel : Steel is obtained by reducing iron ore. It has impurities such as

carbon, silicon, Manganese, Phosphorous, sulphur etc which are
present in the iron ore. Silicone and manganese are beneficial
impurities ( Mn < 0.8 %) (Si < 0.5 %) which improves the mechanical
properties of the steel. Phosphorous and Sulphur adds to the
brittleness in steel
• Any carbon steel contains the following elements in the following
limits: C <0.05%, Mn <0.05%, Si <0.05%, P, S <0.05%.
It will also have a very small amount of Cr and Ni
 Stainless Steel
• Stainless Steel : Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. It has
higher mechanical strength than carbon steel.
• Stainless steels are steels containing at least 10.5% chromium,
less than 1.2% carbon and other alloying element
Other common alloys found in stainless steel are nickel,
magnesium, molybdenum, and nitrogen.
• Stainless steel is resistant to rusting and corrosion. The
biological cleanability of stainless steel is superior to
both aluminium and copper, having a biological cleanability
comparable to glass.
• Its cleanability, strength, and corrosion resistance have
prompted the use of stainless steel in pharmaceutical and
food processing plants.
 Stainless Steel
• Stainless steel is an alloy that is produced by combining a variety of different base
metals to create a new material. Like with other alloys, the final product is
considerably stronger than each of the source materials would be on their own
• Austenitic stainless steel
There are two main characteristics of this type of stainless steel. First, there is a
lot of chromium included during the production of austenitic stainless steel. Items
produced with this material are more corrosion-resistant. Second, these items
tend to be non-magnetic, although they can become magnetic with a cold
forming process. These are the most common types of stainless steel alloys.
• Ferritic Stainless Steel
This type of stainless steel is the second most common type of alloy and is also
magnetic. Items produced with this alloy can be hardened through cold forming
and also tend to be less expensive than other types due to the lower nickel
content.
• Martensitic Stainless Steel
This material is the least common type of stainless steel alloy. Martensitic
stainless steel is used in applications where high tensile strength is needed or a lot
of impact resistance. In many cases, this material is also combined with a
protective polymer coating to improve corrosion-resistance
 Monel / Inconel alloys
• Monel Metal : Any of a group of nickel-copper alloys, first developed
in 1905, containing about 66 percent nickel and 31.5 percent copper,
with small amounts of iron, manganese, carbon, and silicon.
• It is stronger than pure nickel, Monel alloys are resistant to corrosion
by many agents, including rapidly flowing seawater. They can be
fabricated readily by hot- and cold-working, machining, and welding.
• Inconel Alloys : family of austenitic nickel-chromium-
based superalloys. Inconel alloys are oxidation-corrosion-resistant
materials well suited for service in extreme environments subjected
to pressure and heat.
• When heated, Inconel forms a thick, stable, passivating oxide layer
protecting the surface from further attack. Inconel retains strength
over a wide temperature range, attractive for high-temperature
applications where aluminum and steel would succumb to creep as a
result of thermally-induced crystal vacancies.
 Ceramics
• Ceramics : Are the substances manufactured of any product
(such as earthenware, porcelain, or brick) made essentially from
a non-metallic minerals (such as clay) by firing at a high
temperature.
• Ceramic' comes from the Greek word meaning 'pottery'. The
clay-based domestic wares, art objects and building products are
familiar to us all, but pottery is just one part of the ceramic
world.
• There are four basic types of pottery, porcelain, stoneware,
earthenware, and Bone China
• Porcelain : is made from Kaolinite (an ore of Aluminium.
Kaolinite: ​Chemical composition:- Al2Si2O5(OH)4)
• Bone China : Bone china gets its name because it is made with
bone ash. Bone ash is precisely what it sounds like: Animal
bones, usually cow bones, ground into an ash consistency.
 Properties of Ceramics
• Properties of Ceramics :
• High hardness.
• High elastic modulus.
• Low ductility.
• Good dimensional stability.
• Good wear resistance.
• High resistance to chemicals.
• High weather resistance.
• Relatively high melting point
 Use of Ceramics
• Ceramic based objects are useful because it is cheap to buy, it
can be made into many things and although it is fragile and
brittle it is a yet a strong product. Some popular ceramic
products are kitchenware like plates, mugs, knives and even
ceramic cook tops because ceramics is heat resistant and is a
thermoset
• In engineering the ceramics are used in mechanical seals,
bushes, sleeves, machinery parts etc
 Elementary metallurgy of Steel
Basic metallurgy :
• It is the science that examines why metals function the way
they do and demonstrate the properties, behavior, and internal
structure of metals. The metallurgy domain also characterizes
the treatment and processes that allow us to tailor a metal's
properties to a specific application.
• Steel is made from iron by removing impurities and adding
substances such as manganese, chromium, nickel, tungsten,
molybdenum, and vanadium to produce alloys with properties
that make the material suitable for specific uses.
• Three major steelmaking processes—basic oxygen, open
hearth, and electric arc—the first two, with few exceptions, use
liquid blast-furnace iron (pig iron) and scrap as raw material and
the latter (Electric arc) uses a solid charge of scrap and DRI
• Direct Reduced Iron (DRI) is the second most viable source of
virgin iron used in steelmaking after pig iron or hot metal
produced in blast furnaces. DRI is produced by direct
reduction of iron ore using carbon monoxide and hydrogen.
 Metallurgy of Steel
• Iron ore contains about 25% Iron (Fe) in the form of
Magnetite (Fe3O4) and Hematite(Fe2O3).
• After mining and processing the concentrated iron ore pellets
contain about 66% Fe with some silica (SiO2), Lime (CaO) a
small amount of other metals, Phosphorus, and oxygen.
• The first step in the metallurgy of iron is usually roasting the
ore (heating the ore in air) to remove water, decomposing
carbonates into oxides, and converting sulfides into oxides.
The oxides are then reduced in a blast furnace that is 80–100
feet high and about 25 feet in diameter (Figure 23.3.223.3.2)
in which the roasted ore, coke, and limestone (impure CaCO3)
are introduced continuously into the top. Molten iron and slag
are withdrawn at the bottom. The entire stock in a furnace
may weigh several hundred tons.
Production of Steel
Production of Steel
 Production of Steel
• A Blast Furnace for Converting Iron Oxides to Iron Metal.
• The furnace is charged with alternating layers of iron ore
(largely Fe2O3) and a mixture of coke (C) and limestone (CaCO3).
Blasting hot air into the mixture from the bottom causes it to
ignite, producing CO and raising the temperature of the lower
part of the blast furnace to about 2000°C. As the CO that is
formed initially rises, it reduces Fe2O3 to form CO2 and
elemental iron, which absorbs heat and melts as it falls into the
hottest part of the furnace. Decomposition of CaCO3 at high
temperatures produces CaO (lime) and additional CO2, which
reacts with excess coke to form more CO.

Blast furnaces are used to produce pig iron from iron ore for
subsequent processing into steel
 Steel Slag
• Constituent Mean % Range %
• Calcium Oxide (CaO) 39 34-43
• Silicon Dioxide (SiO2) 36 27-38
• Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3) 10 7-12
• Magnesium Oxide (MgO) 12 7-15
• Iron (FeO or Fe2O3) 0.5 0.2-1.6
• Manganese Oxide (MnO) 0.44 0.15-0.76
• Sulphur (S) 1.4 1.0-1.9

• The slag formed consists of the limestone flux, ash from the coke,
and substances formed by the reaction of impurities in the ore
with the flux; it floats in a molten state on the top of the molten
iron.
 Steel Production
• Steel is iron that has most of the impurities removed. Steel also has a
consistent concentration of carbon throughout (0.5 to 1.5 percent). Impurities
like silica, phosphorous and sulphur weaken steel tremendously, so they must
be eliminated. The advantage of steel over iron is greatly improved strength.
• The open-hearth furnace is one way to create steel from pig iron. The pig iron,
limestone and iron ore go into an open-hearth furnace. It is heated to about
871 degrees C. The limestone and ore form a slag that floats on the surface.
Impurities, including carbon, are oxidized and float out of the iron into the
slag. When the carbon content is right, you have carbon steel.
• Another way to create steel from pig iron is the Bessemer process, which
involves the oxidation of the impurities in the pig iron by blowing air through
the molten iron in a Bessemer converter. The heat of oxidation raises the
temperature and keeps the iron molten. As the air passes through the molten
pig iron, impurities unite with the oxygen to form oxides. Carbon monoxide
burns off and the other impurities form slag.
 Steel Production
• However, most modern steel plants use what's called a basic
oxygen furnace to create steel. The advantage is speed, as the
process is roughly 10 times faster than the open-hearth furnace.
In these furnaces, high-purity oxygen blows through the molten
pig iron, lowering carbon, silicon, manganese and phosphorous
levels. The addition of chemical cleaning agents called fluxes help
to reduce the sulphur and phosphorous levels.
• A variety of metals might be alloyed with the steel at this point to
create different properties. For example, the addition of 10 to 30
percent chromium creates stainless steel, which is very resistant
to rust. The addition of chromium and molybdenum creates
chrome-moly steel, which is strong and light
Steel Production : Smelting, Melting & Refining
• Smelting : In the smelting process a metal that is combined with oxygen—
for example, iron oxide—is heated to a high temperature, and the oxide is
caused to combine with the carbon in the fuel, escaping as carbon
monoxide or carbon dioxide.
• Melting : Melting is the process of liquefying a solid substance by heating.
It is the process by which a substance changes from the solid phase to the
liquid phase.
• melting converts a solid substance into a liquid whereas smelting converts
an ore to its purest form.

• Refining : refining consists of purifying an impure metal. It is to be

distinguished from other processes such as smelting and calcining (the
process in which the ore of the metal is heated to high temperature in the
absence or limited supply of air or oxygen) in that those two involve a
chemical change to the raw material, whereas in refining, the final material
is usually identical chemically to the original metal, only it is purer.
 Different types of steel
• Carbon Steels. Carbon steels only contain trace amounts of
elements besides carbon and iron. ...
• Alloy Steels. Alloy steels are created by adding additional
alloying elements like nickel, copper, chromium, and/or
aluminum or mangenese
• Stainless Steels. ...
• Tool Steels
 Different steels
• Low carbon steel (mild carbon steel) : Refers to carbon steels
that have up to 0.30% carbon content. This is, by far, the most
common type of steel on the metals market
• Carbon Steel : Carbon steels are a series of alloys of carbon
and iron containing up to about 1% carbon and up to 1.65%
Mn, with elements added in specific quantities for
deoxidization and residual quantities of other elements.
• Alloy Steel : Alloy steel is a type of steel alloyed with several
elements such as molybdenum, manganese, nickel,
chromium, vanadium, silicon, and boron. These alloying
elements are added to increase strength, hardness, wear
resistance, and toughness. The amounts of alloying elements
may vary between 1 and 50%.
 Stainless Steel and Tool Steel
• Stainless Steel : Stainless steels are steels containing at least 10.5%
chromium, less than 1.2% carbon and other alloying elements.
• Stainless steel's corrosion resistance and mechanical properties can be
further enhanced by adding other elements, such as nickel,
molybdenum, titanium, niobium, manganese, etc.

• Tool Steel : Tool steel is a type of carbon alloy steel that is well-
matched for tool manufacturing, such as hand tools or machine dies.
Its hardness, resistance to abrasion and ability to retain shape at
increased temperatures are the key properties of this material.
• Tool steel alloys are high carbon chrome steels containing differing
amounts of molybdenum, cobalt and/or vanadium or other elements.
Certain tool steels are engineered to withstand repeated high specific
loads and impacts at ambient temperature with exceptional wear
resistance
 Mild Steel
• Common Applications of Mild Steel
• Structural steel.
• Signs.
• Automobiles.
• Furniture.
• Decorations.
• Wire.
• Fencing.
• Nails.
 Carbon Steel
• Carbon steel with the lowest possible amount of carbon is
called ‘wrought iron’, used for fencing, gates and railings, hard
but not brittle.
• Carbon steel gears are able to withstand more force than
stainless steel gears. Other common types of products made
of carbon steel include :
springs, bolts, kitchen knives, wires, cables, bridges, ball
bearings and airplane components
 Alloy Steel
• Alloy Steel : manufacture pipes, especially pipes for energy-
related applications. It's also used in the manufacturing of
heating elements in appliances like toasters, silverware, pots
and pans, and corrosion-resistant containers.
• Advantages of alloy steel :
• Corrosion resistance.
• Better solderability.
• Durable parts.
• Lighter weight for the strength.
• Thermal conductivity.
• Electrical conductivity
 Stainless Steel
• Culinary uses. Kitchen sinks. Cutlery. Cookware.
• Surgical tools and medical equipment. Hemostats(also called
a hemostatic clamp, arterial forceps, is a surgical tool used in
many surgical procedures to control bleeding. Surgical
implants. Temporary crowns (dentistry)
• Architecture, Bridges. Monuments and sculptures. ...
• Automotive and aerospace applications. Auto bodies. Rail cars
 Heat Treatment
• three stages of heat treatment
• Includes heating the metal to a set temperature (the heating
stage), keeping it at that temperature for a specific length of
time (the soaking stage), and cooling it down to room
temperature with a method that depends on the type of
metal and the desired properties (the cooling stage).
• four basic types of heat treatment steel undergoes today:
-annealing
-normalizing
-hardening
-tempering.
 Annealing
• The purpose of annealing is to (Opposite of Hardening)relieve
stress, soften the metal, increase ductility, and improve their
grain structures. T
• o anneal steels and other ferrous metals to produce the highest
level of ductility, you must heat the metal slowly to the
appropriate temperature, soak it, and then allow it to cool slowly
by either burying it in some sort of insulating material or by
simply turning off the furnace and letting both the furnace and
the part cool slowly together.
• The amount of time you let the metal soak depends on both its
type and its mass. If it’s low-carbon steel, it’ll require the highest
possible annealing temperature and, as the carbon content
increases, its annealing temperature will decrease.
 Normalising
• The purpose of normalizing is to remove any internal stresses from heat
treatment, machining, forging, forming, welding, or casting. Metal failure can
result from uncontrolled stress, so normalizing steel before any hardening can
help ensure the success of projects.
• Steel is heated to 720-9300 C, soaked at the temperature and then air cooled.
• Difference Between Annealing & Normalizing
• Normalizing only applies to ferrous metals like steel. But there’s another key
difference in the heat treatment process: when normalizing, after the metal is
heated to a higher temperature, it is air-cooled after removal from the furnace.
• Normalized steel is stronger than annealed steel. With both high strength and
high ductility, it is tougher than annealed steel. If the metal part needs to
withstand impact or have maximum toughness to resist external stresses, it is
usually recommended that it is normalized rather than annealed.
• Since normalized metals are air-cooled, the mass of the metal is a key
determinant of the cooling rate and resulting part’s level of hardness. During
normalizing, thinner pieces will cool faster in the air and become harder than
thicker pieces. But, with annealing and its furnace cooling, the hardness of both
thick and thin parts will be comparable
 Hardening
• The intent of hardening is not onlyto harden the steel, but also to
make it stronger.
• While hardening does increase strength, it also decreases
ductility, making the metal more brittle. After hardening, steel
may need to temper the metal to remove some of the
brittleness.
• To harden most steels, steel undergoes two stages of heat
treatment (slow temperature heat followed by soaking by a
specified time to a uniform temperature), the third stage is
different. When you harden metals, you rapidly cool them by
plunging them into water, oil, or brine. Most steels require rapid
cooling, called quenching, to be hardened, but there are a few
that can be successfully air-cooled
 Hardening
• Alloy Steel Hardening :
As alloys are added to steel, the cooling rate that’s required to harden it
decreases. The slower cooling rate lessens the risk of either cracking or
warping
• Carbon Steel Hardening :
The hardness of carbon steel depends on its carbon content: up to .80%
carbon, the ability to harden increases alongside the carbon content.
Beyond .80%, it increase wear resistance due to hard cementite (also
known as iron carbide, is a compound of iron and carbon, more precisely
an intermediate transition metal carbide with the formula Fe3C) forming,
but it does not increase the hardness.
• When carbon steel is hardened, the steel must be cooled to under 538 0 C in
less than one second
• Alloys steel increases the effectiveness of the carbon, allows to increase the
time limit beyond one second. That allows you to select a slower quenching
medium to get the specified hardness.
 Case Hardening
• Case hardening is a process of hardening a ferrous alloy so that
the surface layer or case is made substantially harder than the
interior or core. The chemical composition of the surface layer is
altered during the treatment by the addition of carbon,
nitrogen, or both. The most frequently used case-hardening
processes are
-Carburising : uses carbon to harden the case
-Cyaniding : uses cyanide (Cyaniding is a case-hardening process
that is fast and efficient; it is mainly used on low-carbon steels.
The part is heated to 871–954 °C in a bath of sodium cyanide
and then is quenched and rinsed, in water or oil, to remove any
residual cyanide.
-Carbonitriding : uses carbon and nitrogen (Amonia) to harden
the case
-Nitriding : uses nitrogen to harden the case
 Tempering
• Tempering (sometimes called drawing) is the process of reheating
hardened or normalized steels to some temperature below 7200 C
• Typically, carbon steels are quenched in brine or water, whereas
alloy steels are quenched in oil.
• Unfortunately, quenching is a process that produces high internal
stress and, to relieve the steel, one option is to temper it. Right
before the part becomes cold, you remove it from the quenching
0
bath at a temperature of 93-95 C and let it air cool.