Introduction to Electronics

Engineering (IXE)
(EC 132)

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 Why to study?
 It is one of the largest and fastest growing fields of engineering.
 It has a major role in improving productivity in industries like oil,
energy, agriculture and so many other important sectors of
economy.
 Computer engineering: hardware development
 Petroleum and chemical industries: electronic devices that
controls and test production processes.
 Mechanical engineering: Sensors and Transducers.
Mechatronics. Automation.
 Civil engineering: Structural health monitoring, Energy
harvesting, and removal of noise.
 Electronic and Communications engineering: conceptualize,
design and test the manufacturing of communications and
broadcast systems.
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 Course Objectives and Outcomes
Course Objectives
• To create awareness among the students about working of basic electronic
devices.
• To prepare students for testing and performing measurements on basic
analog and digital circuits
• To impart knowledge of applications of electronics in various engineering
and technology domains
Course outcomes
• Identify and explain basic electronic devices such as diodes, transistors,
and simple integrated circuits
• Test basic electronic circuits
• Make use of analog and digital integrated circuits technology
• Describe basics of sensors, transducers and their usage in various
electronic measurement systems
• Understand fundamental aspects of electronic communication systems

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 Syllabus
Unit-1: Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors (06)
• Semiconductor diode characteristics, rectifiers: half wave and
full wave, types such as Zener and LEDs, Zener diode as a
voltage regulator, regulated power supply, Transistor: working
principle, operation, configurations and common emitter (CE)
characteristics, biasing circuits, CE amplifier, Introduction to
FET.
Unit-2: Fundamentals of Digital Electronics (06)
• Digital logic levels, basic digital gates and universal gates,
Boolean algebra, De-Morgan’s theorems, SOP, POS, K map,
multiplexer, de-multiplexer, flip flops: basic latch, gated SR,
JK flip flop, D flip flop, T flip flop, SISO and PIPO shift
registers, synchronous counters.

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Unit-3: Introduction to Integrated Circuits Technology (06)

• Discrete circuits, integrated circuits, applications: digital,

analog, mixed, types based on number of components, IC
fabrication and packaging, examples: OP AMP:-inverting and
non-inverting mode.
Unit-4: Sensors, Transducers and IoT Applications (06)
• Definition, classification, selection criteria, specifications,
sensors and transducers for displacement, force, speed,
temperature measurement, actuators, introduction to smart
sensors, data acquisition system, application of transducers such
as digital thermometer, electronics weighing machine,
Introduction to IoT (Internet of Things).
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Unit-5: Electronic Communication Systems (06)
• Introduction to electronic communication systems: block
schematics, types of communication systems, modulation
techniques (AM and FM), introduction to telephony and
cellular communication, data networks and internet.

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 Laboratory work
1. Building electronic circuit on Bread Board and test the result.
2. Design of rectifier using PN junction diode.
3. Design of voltage regulator using Zener diode.
4. Measurement of transistor amplifier gain in CE configuration.
5. Design and implementation of Full Adder using basic and
universal gates.
6. Design of inverting and non-inverting amplifier using OP-
AMP.
7. Study of astable multi-vibrator using IC-555 circuit board.
8. AM generation (DSB-FC): Calculation of modulation index
using graphical method.

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 Learning resources

1. Floyd Thomas, “Electronic Devices”, Prentice Hall,

9th Edition 2012
2. R. P. Jain, “Modern Digital Electronics”, New Delhi:
Tata McGraw Hill, 4th Edition, 2009
3. Kalsi H. S., Electronics Instrumentation, Tata
McGraw Hill, 2nd Edition 2004
4. Frenzel Louies E., Principles of Electronic
Communication Systems, McGraw Hill Education,
4th Edition 2014

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 Assessment Scheme
Class Continuous Assessment (CCA): 50 Marks
Assignments Mid term Attendance Objective Case
Test test study
Moodle based
(U 3 & 5)
[U 1 & 2 (20 M)] (U 1 & 2)
05 15 05 15 10

Laboratory Continuous Assessment (LCA): 50 Marks

File Mini-project

30 20

End Term Examination: 50 M (entire syllabus)

 Semiconductor Diodes and
Transistors
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/electrical-engineering/ee-semiconductor-devices/ee-
diode/v/ee-diode

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 Unit-1:
Semiconductor Diodes and Transistors (06)

 Diodes:
 Semiconductor diode characteristics
 Rectifiers: half wave and full wave
 Types: Zener and LED.
 Application: Zener diode as a voltage regulator.
 Regulated power supply.
 Transistor:
 Working principle
 Operation
 Operating modes
 CE characteristics and amplifier.
 Biasing circuits
 Introduction to FET.
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 Materials used in Electronics
• All materials are made up of atoms.
• These atoms contribute to the electrical properties of
a material, including its ability to conduct electrical
current.

Atom: Carbon
1. Valence shell (4 electrons)
2. Core {all the inner shells (2
electrons) and the nucleus (6 protons
and neutrons)}.

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Band gap or Energy gap:
• The difference in energy between the VB and the CB.
• It is the amount of energy that a valence electron must have in
order to jump from the VB to CB.
• Once in the CB, the electron is free to move throughout the
material and is not tied to any given atom.

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 Semiconductor Material
• Two types:
• Silicon (Si)
• Germanium (Ge)

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 Covalent Bonds

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 Current in Semiconductors

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 Conduction Electrons and Holes

Intrinsic (pure) silicon @ room temperature

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 Electron and Hole Current

• Conduction in semiconductors: either the movement

of free electrons in the CB or the movement of holes
in the VB

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 Intrinsic (pure) Semiconductor
• They have very few free electrons
• They are neither good conductor nor good insulators.
• It’s conductivity can be increased by adding free electrons and
holes so that it is useful for electronic devices.
• Doping process is used to add impurities into it and resultant is
called extrinsic semiconductor.

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 Extrinsic Semiconductor
• Doping: The process of adding impurities to intrinsic
semiconductive materials.
• Objective: To increase and control conductivity within the
material
• Types:
N-type semiconductor:
 To increase the number of CB electrons in intrinsic silicon,
pentavalent (5 valence electrons) impurity atoms are added.
 Examples: arsenic (As), phosphorus (P), bismuth (Bi), and
antimony (Sb).
 Electrons: majority charge carriers
 Holes: minority charge carriers
 Donor atom

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 Cont.

P-type semiconductor:
 To increase the number of holes in intrinsic silicon, trivalent
(3 valence electronics) impurity atoms are added.
 Examples: boron (B), indium (In), and gallium (Ga).
 Holes: majority charge carriers
 Electrons: minority charge carriers
 Acceptor atom

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 Silicon

• Si has four valence electrons. Therefore, it can form

covalent bonds with four of its neighbors.
• When temperature goes up, electrons in the covalent bond
can become free.
28
 Electron-Hole Pair Interaction

• With free electrons breaking off covalent bonds,

holes are generated.
• Holes can be filled by absorbing other free electrons,
so effectively there is a flow of charge carriers.
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 Doping (N type)

• Pure Si can be doped with other elements to

change its electrical properties.
• For example, if Si is doped with P (phosphorous),
then it has more electrons, or becomes type N
(electron).
30
 Doping (P type)

• If Si is doped with B (boron), then it has

more holes, or becomes type P.

31
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Summary of Charge Carriers

33
 First Charge Transportation Mechanism: Drift

 
vh   p E
 
ve    n E

• The process in which charge particles move because of

an electric field is called drift.
• Charge particles will move at a velocity that is
proportional to the electric field.
34
 Second Charge Transportation Mechanism: Diffusion

• Charge particles move from a region of high

concentration to a region of low concentration.
35
 P-N Junction
• When p-type and n-type materials are joined
this forms a pn junction
– majority charge carriers on each side diffuse across
the junction where they combine with (and
remove) charge carriers of the opposite polarity
– hence around the junction there are few free charge
carriers and we have a depletion layer (also called
a space-charge layer)

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 P-N Junction

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 Diffusion

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 Formation of P-N junction

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 Formation of P-N junction
• The diffusion of
positive charge in one
direction and negative
charge in the other
produces a charge
imbalance
– this results in a
potential barrier
across the junction

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 Barrier Potential

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 Barrier Potential

– the barrier opposes the flow of majority charge

carriers and only a small number have enough
energy to surmount it
• this generates a small diffusion current
– the barrier encourages the flow of minority carriers
and any that come close to it will be swept over
• this generates a small drift current
– for an isolated junction these two currents must
balance each other and the net current is zero

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 Diodes
It is represented by the following symbol, where the
arrow indicates the direction of positive current flow.
 Forward Bias and Reverse Bias
• Forward Bias : Connect positive of the Diode
to positive of supply…negative of Diode to
negative of supply
• Reverse Bias: Connect positive of the Diode to
negative of supply…negative of diode to
positive of supply.
Diode in Forward Bias

46
 Diode in Forward Bias

Forward Resistance of Diode – Very small, it is of the order

of few ohms.
Forward voltage drop across diode Vf = 0.7 for Silicon and
0.3 for Germanium 47
 Diode in Forward Bias

• When the N-type region of a diode is at a lower potential than the

P-type region, the diode is in forward bias.
• The depletion width is shortened and the built-in electric field
decreased.
48
Diode in Reverse Bias

49
 Diode in Reverse Bias
Reverse Saturation Current – Due to minority carriers

Reverse Biased Resistance- Very large, its value is a few

hundred Kohm.

50
 Diode in Reverse Bias

• When the N-type region of a diode is connected to a higher potential than

the P-type region, the diode is under reverse bias, which results in wider

depletion region and larger built-in electric field across the junction. 51
The Diode Characteristic I-V Curve

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 Ideal Diodes Characteristics

• An ideal diode passing electricity in one

direction but not the other
Ideal-Diode Model
* Graphical load-line analysis is too cumbersome for complex circuits,
* We may apply “Ideal-Diode Model” to simplify the analysis:
(1) in forward direction: short-circuit assumption, zero voltage drop;
(2) in reverse direction: open-circuit assumption.
* The ideal-diode model can be used when the forward voltage drop and reverse
currents are negligible.

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 Diode Current Equation
• The relation between applied voltage V across the diode and current
I flowing through the diode can be expressed mathematically as:

where V= The voltage applied across the diode

=The current flowing through the diode
=The dark saturation current
η = The exponential ideality factor
= 2 for Si p-n junction diode
= 1 for Ge p-n junction diode
= Voltage equivalent of temp in volts = K * T/q
q =Charge on the electron C
K =Boltzman’s constant J/ ⁰K
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T = Temperature in ⁰K 55
 • Semiconductor diode
• A device that conducts in only one
direction
• They have 2 leads like a resistor
• The current passing depends on the
voltage between the two leads
• Do not obey Ohm’s law

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 Applications
• Used as RECTIFIERS to convert AC to DC.
• Rectifiers are found in all DC power supplies.
• Power supply is an essential part of each electronic system.
• Diodes are used as switches in some applications.
• They are used as Voltage regulators.
• Diodes are electrical version of a valve (earlier diodes were
called valves).

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 Regulated DC Power Supply
• Rectification- a process of converting the AC
voltage/current into the corresponding DC
quantity.

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 Building blocks of a DC power supply
– Step down Transformer
• Reduces the ac voltage to a tolerable level
– A Rectifier
• Converts ac to pulsating dc
– Filter
• Converts rectifier output to steady ripple free
voltage which is close to pure dc (ac part is
removed)
– Regulator
• Keeps the dc output constant even if the
input or load fluctuates.
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 Rectifier

• An electronic device used for converting AC

voltage/current into a unidirectional DC voltage/current.

• Diodes are used in rectifiers because of their ability to

conduct current in only one direction and block current
in the other direction.

• Rectifiers are used in several electronic devices we come

across in our daily life, eg. TV, Radio, PC, etc.

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 Classification of Rectifiers
Rectifier Circuit

Half Wave
Full Wave
Rectifier
Rectifier (FWR)
(HWR)
FWR with
center tapped
transformer

Full Wave
Bridge Rectifier

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 Diodes – Rectifier Circuits
Rectifier Circuits
* Rectifiers convert ac power to dc power.
* Rectifiers form the basis for electronic power suppliers and battery charging
circuits.
Half-Wave Rectifier

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 Half wave Rectifier

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 Half wave Rectifier
Input – sinewave Output: only half cycle
• By interchanging the direction of diode – positive or negative
half cycle.
• Rectifier circuits are operated from ac mains only.
• Mostly step down transformer with necessary turns ratio is
used to reduce the voltage to some tolerable level.
• Input voltage is sinusoidal ac voltage having frequency which
is supply frequency, 50 Hz.

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 Operation of the circuit

Circuit during positive half cycle Circuit during negative half cycle

11/29/2023 Animated working of HWR 65

 Waveforms

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 Parameters of HWR
• Average Load Current ()
• Average Load Voltage()
• RMS Load Current ()
• RMS Load Voltage ()
• Rectifier efficiency (η)
• Ripple Factor
• Voltage Regulation
• Rectification Efficiency and TUF (Transformer
Utilization Factor)
• Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
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 DC or Average Load Current ()

𝑰𝒎
𝑰 𝑳𝑫𝑪 =
𝝅

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• Conceptually, finding average value of an
alternating current means to determine the area
under the curve over one complete cycle i.e. 0 to
2 and divide the area by the base 2
• Mathematically, current waveform is described as,

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 DC or Average Load Voltage ()

where

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 AC or RMS Load Current ()
RMS means: Squaring,
Finding mean, &
Finding Square root

Also called effective value of the load current

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 AC or RMS Load Voltage ()

𝑽𝒎
𝑽 𝑳 𝒓𝒎𝒔 ≈
𝟐

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 Rectifier efficiency
• Rectifier efficiency is defined as the percentage of ac
input power, actually converted into the average load
power.

• It should be as high as possible.

1.
2.

• = 40.6

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 Ripple Factor
• Output of HW rectifier contains pulsating component called
ripples.
• Ripple factor is used to measure amount of pulsation present in
the output of the rectifier. It tells how smooth the output is.

• For HWR : and

• Hence r = 1.211

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 TUF (Transformer Utilization Factor)
• How much is the utilization of transformer.

TUF = 0.287
• Low TUF means transformer is not fully utilized.

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 Peak Inverse Voltage
• The peak inverse voltage (PIV) equals the peak value of the
input voltage, and the diode must be capable of withstanding
this amount of repetitive reverse voltage.
• For the diode in Figure of HWR the maximum value of
reverse voltage, designated as PIV, occurs at the peak of each
negative alternation of the input voltage when the diode is
reverse-biased.
• A diode should be rated at least 20% higher than the PIV.
PIV = (in)
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 Ripple Frequency

• It is the frequency of the pulsating load voltage

waveform.
• For a half wave rectifier, ripple frequency is 50Hz.

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 Advantages of HWR

• Simple construction.
• Less number of components are required to be
used.
• Small size.

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 Disadvantages of HWR
• Possibility of core saturation due to unidirectional current flow
through transformer. To avoid this size of transformer should be
increased.
• Ripple factor is high (1.21).

• Low rectification efficiency (40%).

• Low TUF(only 28%) which shows that transformer is not utilized

effectively.
• Low DC output voltage and current.

• Larger filter components are required.

– Because of these disadvantages HWR is not normally used in practice.
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 Applications of HWR
• In the eliminators for pocket radios or eliminators for
walkman or in the low cost power supplies.

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 Diodes – Rectifier Circuits
• Full-Wave Rectifier Circuits

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 Diodes – Rectifier Circuits
Full-Wave Rectifier Circuits

* Center-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier – two half-wave rectifier with out-of-phase

source voltages and a common ground.
* When upper source supplies “+” voltage to diode A,
the lower source supplies “-” voltage to diode B;
and vice versa.
* We can also smooth the output by using a large capacitance.

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 Full Wave Rectifier

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 Full Wave Rectifier

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 DC or Average Load Current ()

𝟐 𝑰𝒎
𝑰 𝑳𝑫𝑪 =
𝝅

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 DC or Average Load Voltage ()

where

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 AC or RMS LOAD CURRENT ()

Compared to HWR the value for FWR is higher by 20.7%

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 AC or RMS Load Voltage ()

𝑽𝒎
𝑽 𝑳 𝒓𝒎𝒔 ≈
√𝟐

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 Rectifier efficiency
• Rectifier efficiency is defined as the percentage of ac
input power, actually converted into the average load
power.

• Rectification efficiency of FWR is almost twice the rectifier

efficiency of HWR

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 Comparison of Rectifier circuits
Centre tapped
Parameters Half-wave Bridge
Full-wave
No of Diodes 1 2 4
Rectifier Efficiency 40.6% 81.2% 81.2%
Peak Inverse Voltage VM 2VM VM

Average / DC load Current Im/π 2*Im/π 2*Im/π

Vdc (no load) Vm/π 2Vm/π 2Vm/π

RMS Load Current I(Lrms) Im/2 Im/√2 Im/√2
RMS Load Voltage V(Lrms) Vm/π Vm/√2 Vm/√2
(Ripple) Output Frequency f 2f 2f
Transformer Utilization 0.287 0.693 0.812
Factor (TUF)
Ripple Factor 1.21 0.48 0.48
Pdc (Im2 / pi 2) * RL 4* (Im2 / pi 2) * RL 4* (Im2 / pi 2) * RL
Pac (Im2 / 4) * (RL + Rs + Rf ) (Im2 / 2) * (RL + Rs + Rf ) (Im2 / 2) * (RL + Rs + 2Rf )
Center Tapped Transformer Not required Very much required Not required

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 Example based on HWR
• A diode whose internal resistance (forward) is 20 ohm is to
supply power to a 1000 ohm load from a 110V (rms) source of
supply.
Calculate:
1. The Peak load current
2. The DC load current
3. The AC load current
4. The DC load voltage

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 Example based on FWR Center Tapped
Transformer
• In a center tapped FWR, the rms half secondary
voltage is 10V. Assuming ideal diodes and load
resistance of RL = 2 kOhm,
find:
1. Peak Current
2. DC Load voltage
3. Ripple Factor
4. Efficiency of rectification

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 Example based on Bridge Rectifier
• A bridge rectifier is applied with input from a step
down transformer having turns ration 8:1 and input
230 V, 50Hz. If the diode forward resistance is 1 ohm,
secondary resistance is 10 ohm and load resistance
connected is 2 kohm. Find:
1. Peak load current
2. DC load current
3. Dc load power
4. PIV across each diode
5. Efficiency

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 Filters
• Rectification means direct current (DC)
• The output current of the half wave and full wave rectifier
contain large ac components
• There is ripple voltage across
• Filters are the electronic circuits used alongwith rectifiers in
order to get a pure ripple free dc voltage
• Types of Filters

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 Diodes – Rectifier Circuits
* Half-Wave Rectifier with Smoothing Capacitor

* To place a large capacitance across the output terminals:

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 Capacitor Filter

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 Diodes – Rectifier Circuits
Full-Wave Rectifier Circuits

* Center-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier – two half-wave rectifier with out-of-phase

source voltages and a common ground.
* When upper source supplies “+” voltage to diode A,
the lower source supplies “-” voltage to diode B;
and vice versa.
* We can also smooth the output by using a large capacitance.

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 Full-Wave Rectifier Circuits

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 Zener Diode

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 Outlines
 Introduction of Zener Diode

 Construction of Zener Diode

 Working of Zener Diode

 Application of Zener Diode

 Numerical of Zener Diode

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 Introduction
The zener diode is a silicon pn junction devices that differs from rectifier
diodes because it is designed for operation in the reverse-breakdown
region. The breakdown voltage of a zener diode is set by carefully
controlling the level of doping during manufacture. The basic function of
zener diode is to maintain a specific voltage across it’s terminals within
given limits of line or load change. Typically it is used for providing a
stable reference voltage for use in power supplies and other equipment.

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 Construction of Zener
Zener diodes are designed to operate in reverse breakdown. Two types of reverse
breakdown in a zener diode are avalanche and zener. The avalanche break down
occurs in both rectifier and zener diodes at a sufficiently high reverse voltage. Zener
breakdown occurs in a zener diode at low reverse voltages.
A zener diode is heavily doped to reduced the breakdown voltage.
This causes a very thin depletion region.
The zener diodes breakdown characteristics are determined by the
doping process
Zeners are commercially available with voltage breakdowns of 1.8 V
to 200 V.

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 Working of Zener
A zener diode is much like a normal diode. The exception being is that it
is placed in the circuit in reverse bias and operates in reverse breakdown.
This typical characteristic curve illustrates the operating range for a zener.
Note that it’s forward characteristics are just like a normal diode.

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 Breakdown Characteristics
Figure shows the reverse portion of a zener diode’s characteristic
curve. As the reverse voltage (VR) is increased, the reverse current (IR)
remains extremely small up to the “knee” of the curve. The reverse
current is also called the zener current, IZ. At this point, the breakdown
effect begins; the internal zener resistance, also called zener impedance
(ZZ), begins to decrease as reverse current increases rapidly.

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 ZENER BREAKDOWN
• Zener and avalanche effects are responsible for
such a dramatic increase in the value of current at
the breakdown voltage.

• If the impurity concentration is very high, then

the width of depletion region is very less. Less
width of depletion region will cause high intensity
of electric field to develop in the depletion region
at low voltages.
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 AVALANCHE BEAKDOWN

• Zener effect predominates on diodes whose breakdown

voltage is below 6 V. The breakdown voltage can be
obtained at a large value by reducing the concentration
of impurity atom.

• We know that very little amount of current flows in the

reverse biased diode. This current is due to the flow of
minority charge carriers i.e., electrons in the p type
semiconductor and holes in the n type semiconductor.

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• The width of depletion region is large when the impurity
concentration is less. .

• When a reverse bias voltage is applied across the terminals of the

diode, the electrons from the p type material and holes from the n-
type materials accelerates through the depletion region.
• This results in collision of intrinsic particles (electrons and holes)
with the bound electrons in the depletion region. With the increase
in reverse bias voltage the acceleration of electrons and holes also
increases.
• Now the intrinsic particles collides with bound electrons with
enough energy to break its covalent bond and create an electron-
hole pair. This is shown in the figure.

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 Avalanche Breakdown Mechanism

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• The collision of electrons with the atom creates an
electron-hole pair.
.

• This newly created electron also gets accelerated due to

electric field and breaks many more covalent bond to
further create more electron-hole pair.
• This process keeps on repeating and it is called carrier
multiplication.
• The newly created electrons and holes contribute to the
rise in reverse current.
• The process of carrier multiplication occurs very quickly
and in very large numbers that there is apparently an
avalanche of charge carriers. Thus the breakdown is
called avalanche breakdown.

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 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ZENER AND
AVALANCHE BREAKDOWN
Zener Breakdown
1.This occurs at junctions which being
heavily doped have narrow depletion
layers
2. This breakdown voltage sets a
very strong electric field across
this narrow layer.
3. Here electric field is very strong
to rupture the covalent bonds
thereby generating electron-hole
pairs. So even a small increase in
reverse voltage is capable of producing
Large number of current carriers.
4. Zener diode exhibits negative temp:
coefficient. Ie. breakdown voltage
decreases as temperature increases.
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Avalanche breakdown
1. This occurs at junctions which
being lightly doped have wide depletion layers.
2. Here electric field is not strong
enough to produce Zener breakdown.
3. Her minority carriers collide with semi conductor atoms
in the depletion region, which breaks the covalent bonds
and electron-hole pairs are generated. Newly generated
charge carriers are accelerated by the electric field which
results in more collision and generates avalanche of
charge carriers. This results in avalanche breakdown.
4. Avalanche diodes exhibits positive temp: coefficient. i.e
breakdown voltage increases with increase in
temperature.
112
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 Zener diode Data Sheet Information

VZ: zener voltage

IZT: zener test current
ZZT: zener Impedance
IZK: zener knee
current IZM: maximum
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Ideal Model & Ideal Characteristic Curve of Zener Diode

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Practical Model & Practical Characteristic Curve of Zener Diode

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Zener Diode Applications –
Zener Regulation with a Varying Input Voltage

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 Regulated DC Power Supply
• Rectification- a process of converting the AC
voltage/current into the corresponding DC
quantity.

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 Numerical on Zener Diode
A zener diode exhibits a certain change in V z for a certain change in lz on a portion of the
linear characteristic curve between IZK and IZM as illustrated in Figure. What is the zener
impedance?

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 Example
• A 5.0V stabilised power supply is
required to be produced from
a 12V DC power supply input source.

The maximum power rating Pz of the

zener diode is 2W.
Using the zener regulator circuit
calculate:
a) The maximum current flowing
through the zener diode.
b) The value of the series resistor, Rs
c) The load current IL if a load
resistor of 1kΩ is connected across
the Zener diode.
d) The total supply current Is

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(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

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 Summary
• A zener diode is always operated in its reverse biased
condition.
• A voltage regulator circuit can be designed using a zener
diode to maintain a constant DC output voltage across the
load in spite of variations in the input voltage or changes in
the load current.
• The zener voltage regulator consists of a current limiting
resistor Rs connected in series with the input voltage Vs with
the zener diode connected in parallel with the load R L in this
reverse biased condition.
• The stabilized output voltage is always selected to be the
same as the breakdown voltage Vz of the diode.

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 Light Emitting Diode: LED

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 LED Symbol

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 LED Construction

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 Principle of LED operation
• LED works in forward Bias

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 LED: How It Works
• When current flows
across a diode

• Negative electrons move

one way and positive
holes move the other
way

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 LED: How It Works
• The holes exist at a
lower energy level
than the free
electrons

• Therefore when a free

electrons falls it losses
energy

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 LED: How It Works
• This energy is emitted in a
form of a photon, which
causes light

• The color of the light is

determined by the fall of the
electron and hence energy leve
of the photon

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 Inside a Light Emitting Diode
1. Transparent
Plastic Case
2. Terminal Pins
3. Diode

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 Some important points
• Cut in voltage – 1.2 V to 3.2 V
• Breakdown voltage - very less, need to take
care when Reverse biased or never connect in
reverse bias. Range is 3 V to 10 V.

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 How to Connect a LED:
• Requires 1.5~2.5V and 10 mA
• To prevent overloading, use resistor 470 Ω

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 Semiconductor Material used for LED
• GaAs – Infrared (IR)
• GAAsP – Red / Yellow
• GaP – Red / Green

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 Applications
• Seven Segment Display
• Infrared remote control
• Indicator

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 LED Seven Segment Display

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 Types of Seven Segment Display

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 Types of Seven Segment Display

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 Resource Material for the topic
• Reference Books:
Floyd Thomas, Electronic Devices, Prentice Hall,
9th Edition 2012
• Links to Useful Videos:
1. Diodes
2. LEDs
3. Diode Applications

• Links to Useful Resource material:

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 Thank You !

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