CHAPTER 2

DATA
Definition
• Data – measure on variables of interest obtained
from a sample.

• Data set- a collection of raw information

generated by a study.
Source of data
• Primary data
▫ First hand and not analyzed yet
▫ Collected by investigator himself
▫ Advantages
 The investigator is aware of any limitation
 More accurate and consistent with the objective of
the study
▫ Disadvantages
 Inconvenient required more time, effort and money
….cont
Secondary data
◦ Second hand data and the data is taken from other
investigator’s collection.
◦ Advantages
 More convenient
 Data help you decide what further research needs to
be done.
◦ Disadvantages
 Transcription error
 May not meet the objectives of current research
 expensive
 Type of variables

Qualitative Quantitative

* Cannot be expressed by * Can be expressed by number

number
* Two types:
* Example:
* Discrete data
* Gender
* Finite number or a
* Type of cars countable number
* Color of cars * Example: number of
* etc car, number of
children, etc.
* Continuous data
* Infinite number
* Example: height,
weight, etc
 Level / scale of
measurement

Nominal

Ratio

Interval

Ordinal
 Sampling Technique
and
Data Collection Method
Sampling
 the process of selecting a sample from a population.
 must be done as accurate as possible in order to represent the whole
population.
Advantages of sampling
-Save cost and time
-Save energy
-Give better analysis

Sampling frame
 a list of all item in the population
 must
- Complete
- no item in population are left out
- should not be defective
Sampling technique
 scientific methods of selecting samples from populations.

 the sample must selected randomly and representative the whole

population of interest.

Two types:
-Probability  use when sample frame can be obtained

-Non-probability  use when sample frame can not be obtained

PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Simple Random

Systematic

Stratified

Cluster

Multi-stage
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
TECHNIQUES

Convenience

Judgmental

Quota

Snowball
PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
TECHNIQUE
Simple Random Sampling
 is selected from the population in such a way that each item has the same
chance of being selected as a sample.

Condition
-population is homogeneous
- complete sampling frame
 method applied are lottery and random number generated from computer.

 process involved in selecting sample:

1. Get a complete sampling frame and sort it.
2. Label each element with unit number.
3. Choose one by one (without replacement) until achieves number of
sample.
Systematic Sampling
 We divide the population size(N) by a sample size (n) to obtain the range
k
 Process involve:
1. Get a complete sampling frame and sort it.
population size N
2. Find the range k 
sample size n

3. Choose r at random where rth data is selected first.

4. The remaining selection : rth, (r+k)th, (r+2k)th, (r+3k)th,…….,(r +

(n-1)k)th
Stratified Sampling
We divide the population into several mutually exclusive strata and then
randomly select sample from each strata.
the population is divided into strata such that unit within strata are
homogeneous and difference between strata is heterogeneous.
Population

Sample
 example:

Population = FSKM + FA + FBS

Number to be selected = 15

Group Size Calculation Number to be selected

FSKM 10 10/30 x 15 = 5 5
FA 12 12/30 x 15 = 6 6
FBS 8 8/30 x 15 = 4 4
Total 30 15
Cluster sampling
• probability sampling technique applicable when the study cover a large
geographical area
• the population is not homogeneous
• sampling frame is not available

BM111

SEM 5
SEM 1

SEM 2 SEM 3 SEM 4

sample
Multi-stage sampling
• to reduce time and cost when working with samples from very large
populations
• Example:

▫ Let us assume that a country is made up of 10 states. Then select at

random a sample of 3 states. From each of 3 states, select at random 10
towns. From each of the selected towns, select at random 50 people.
Finally, we have a total of 50 x 10 x 3, that is 1500 individual to be
selected as sample.
 le :
a m p
Ex Population: Shah Alam apartment residents.
i. Select randomly 5 sections out of 13 sections.
ii. Select several block from 5 choosen sections
iii.Then random sample of levels is selected from the choosen block

• Finally all departments units from each selected levels are included in the final sample
SHAH ALAM

S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10 S11 S12 S13

S2, S4, S6, S9 & S13

BLOCK

LEVEL
NON PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
TECHNIQUE
Convenience Sampling
▫ a.k.a accidental sampling
▫ Respondent are selected because they happen to
be in the right place at the right time.
Judgmental Sampling
▫ The population elements are selected based on the
judgment of the research.
Quota Sampling
▫ The sample is divided up into quota
▫ Control chosen
Snowball Sampling
▫ Researcher identifies first respondent
▫ Then asks that respondent to identify others in the
same population.
DATA COLLECTION
METHOD
Face to face interview
▫ a.k.a personal interview.
▫ Done whereby the researcher need to interview
the respondents
▫ 2 method of how it is being done:
 Interviewer meet the respondent and ask question
 Respondent go to the interview center whereby a few
interviewer will ask the questions.
Telephone interview
▫ Limited to sample have telephone only.
▫ Conducting interview in the big cities of the
country
▫ The question must be arranged properly
▫ Much cheaper than personal interview
▫ Response rate would be less.
Direct questionnaire
▫ Researcher will greet the respondent
▫ Explain briefly his intention before giving the
questionnaire
▫ Wait until the respondent complete the
questionnaire.
Mail /postal questionnaire
▫ A questionnaire is send to respondent by post.
▫ The respondent were requested to answer the
questionnaire and return it back in a period of
time.
Direct observation
▫ Generally used to study the habits or human
behavior towards something.
▫ All information needed is being recorded by the
observer.
Other method
▫ Email
▫ Internet survey
▫ Sms
Designing a questionnaire
• Question should be simple and short
• Question should having an exact answer
• Question should not require calculation
• Question must not be bias