BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

& LOGIC CIRCUITS

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates
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Boolean Algebra
 Boolean Algebra
3

 Manipulation of variables that can have 1 of 2

values
 “true” and “false” in formal logic
 “on” and “off”, 1 and 0, or “high” and “low” in digital
systems

 Boolean expressions are created by performing

operations on Boolean variables
 Common Boolean operators : AND, OR, and NOT
 Boolean Operators AND OR
4

 Described using a truth table

 AND operator = Boolean product
 OR operator = Boolean sum
 Boolean Operator NOT
5

 Describedusing a truth table

 NOT operation is designated by an overbar
 Sometimes indicated by a prime mark ( ‘ ) or an
“elbow” ()
 Boolean Function
6

 at least 1 Boolean variable,

Consists  at least 1 Boolean operator, and
of  at least 1 input from the set {0,1}

Produces an output that is also a member of the set

{0,1}
 Boolean Function
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 Truth table for Boolean function

 Rules of precedence
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 NOT has highest priority,

followed by AND
and then OR
 Boolean Algebra and Computers
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Computers contain circuits that implement Boolean

functions
 The simpler the Boolean function, the smaller the

circuit
 Simpler circuits are cheaper to build, consume less power,
and run faster
 There are a number of Boolean identities that help us
simplify Boolean functions
 Boolean Identities (1)
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 2 forms : AND (product) form, OR (sum) form

 Boolean Identities (2)
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 Boolean Identities (3)
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 Most useful
 Using Boolean Identities (1)
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 To simplify the function

 Using Boolean Identities (2)
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 Sometimes more economical to build a circuit using

the complement of a function (and complementing
its result) than to implement the function directly

 DeMorgan’s law provides an easy way of finding

the complement of a Boolean function
 Using DeMorgan’s Law
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 Replaceeach variable by its complement and

change all ANDs to ORs and all ORs to ANDs
 Minterms & Maxterms
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 Any Boolean expression may be expressed as:

 Minterms
 Product terms that contain all of the function’s variables
exactly once, either complemented or not complemented

 Maxterms
 Sum terms that contain all of the function’s variables
exactly once, either complemented or not complemented
 2-variable expression
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X Y Minter Maxter
m m
0 0 X'.Y' X+Y
0 1 X'.Y X+Y'
1 0 X.Y' X'+Y
1 1 X.Y X'+Y'

Any minterm is the complement of the corresponding

maxterm
 3-variable expression
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X Y Z Minter Maxter
m m
0 0 0 X'.Y‘.Z’ X+Y+Z
0 0 1 X'.Y‘.Z X+Y+Z’
0 1 0 X'.Y.Z’ X+Y‘+Z
0 1 1 X'.Y.Z X+Y‘+Z
’
1 0 0 X.Y‘.Z’ X'+Y+Z
1 0 1 X.Y‘.Z X'+Y+Z’
1 1 0 X.Y.Z’ X'+Y‘+Z
 Canonical Form (1)
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 Many forms for the same Boolean expression

 Logically equivalent forms
 Identical truth tables

 To eliminate confusion, use canonical form

Canonical forms are generally not simplified

 Canonical Forms (2)
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 2 canonical forms for Boolean expressions :

 sum-of-products and product-of-sums

 Sum-of-products : minterms are ORed together

F(x, y, z) = xyz + x’y + xyz’

 Product-of-sums : maxterms are ANDed together

F(x, y, z) = (x+z) . (x+y’+z’) . (x+y+z’)
 Sum-of-Products (SOP)
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Sum of minterms

 Derive SOP from truth table,

 OR together all of the minterms which give an
output value of 1
 Converting Function To SOP
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X Y F Minter
m
0 0 0 X'.Y'
0 1 0 X'.Y
1 0 1 X.Y'
1 1 1 X.Y

f(X.Y) = X.Y' + X.Y

 Products-of-Sums (POS)
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Product of maxterms

 Derive POS from truth table,

 AND together all of the maxterms which give an
output value of 0
 Converting Function To SOP
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X Y F Maxter
m
0 0 1 X+Y
0 1 0 X+Y'
1 0 1 X'+Y
1 1 1 X'+Y'

F(X,Y) = (X+Y')
 Example
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SOP
 Exercise Give SOP and POS forms
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X Y Z Functio
n
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0

1 0 1 1

1 1 0 1

1 1 1 0
 Exercise Give SOP and POS forms
27

X Y Z Functio X Y F Maxter
n m
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 X+Y
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 X+Y'
0 1 0 0
1 0 1 X'+Y
0 1 1 1
1 1 1 X'+Y'
1 0 0 0

1 0 1 1 F(X,Y) = (X+Y')
1 1 0 1

1 1 1 0
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Logic Gates
 Digital Logic
29

 Implement Boolean functions with transistors

5 volts represent Boolean true or 1
0 volts represent Boolean false or 0
 Logic Gates
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 Used to implement Boolean functions

 Electronic devices that produce result based on 2
or more input values
 Consist of 1 to 6 transistors
 Logic Gates: AND, OR, and
NOT
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 Logic Gate: exclusive OR
(XOR)
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 Output of XOR is true only when inputs differ

 Logic Gates: NAND and NOR
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 Logic Gates: NAND and NOR
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(X.Y) X. (X.Y)
’ Same as Y ’

(X+Y) X+Y (X+Y)’

’ Same as
 Logic Gates: NAND and NOR
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 Universal gates
 Inexpensive to manufacture
 Any Boolean function can be constructed using only
NAND or only NOR gates
 Logic Gates
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 Gatescan have multiple inputs and more than one

output
 A second output can be provided for the complement
of the operation
 Exercise
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 Investigatethe relationship between the following

circuits. Which law does it represent?
 DeMorgan’s Law

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 DeMorgan’s Law

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Notation Used at Circuit Intersections
 Exercise
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 Simplify x · (x + y)==x · x + x · y
=x+x·y
= x · (1 + y)
=x·1
=x Absorption law
 Simplify x + (x · y)==x · (1 + y)
=x·1
=x
 Exercise
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1. Select the Boolean expression that is not equivalent to x.x+x.x’

(a) x · (x + x’) (b) (x + x’) · x (c) x’ (d) x
2. Select the expression which is equivalent to x · y + x · y · z
(a) x · y (b) x · z (c) y · z (d) x · y · z
3. Select the expression which is equivalent to (x + y) · (x + y’)
(a) y (b) y’ (c) x (d) x’
4. Select the expression that is not equivalent to x · (x’ + y) + y
(a) x · x’ + y · (1 + x) (b) 0 + x · y + y
(c) x · y (d) y
 Exercise
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 Obtain the expression of the following circuits

A.B.C’

A.B(A’+BC)’
 Exercise 11
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 Give the canonical SOP form of this function:

F(x,y,z) = xy + yz
= xy (z+z’) + (x+x’)yz
= xyz + xyz’ + xyz + x’yz
= xyz + xyz’ + x’yz
45
Simplifying Logic Circuits
 Simplifying Logic Circuits
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Obtaining one Boolean function for the circuit

Simplifying the Boolean function

 Simplifying Boolean Functions
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2 approaches

Using Boolean Using Karnaugh

identities maps
time-consuming and/or error-prone systematic,
step-by-step approach
 Using Boolean Identities
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 Simplify by trying 3 things :

 Grouping
 Multiplication by redundant variables
 Application of DeMorgan's Theorem
 Using Boolean Identities
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 Grouping :
 Given A + AB + BC
 write it as A(1+ B) + BC

 then apply 1+ B =1

 Minimized form A + BC
 Using Boolean Identities
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 Multiplication by redundant variables

 Multiplying by terms of the form (A + A’) does not
alter the logic
 Given AB + AC’ + BC
= AB (C + C’) + AC’ + BC
= ABC + ABC’ + AC’ + BC
= BC (A + 1) + AC’ (B + 1)
= BC + AC’
 Using Boolean Identities
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 Application of DeMorgan's Theorem

 ((AB’C) + (ACD)’ + BC’)’ = ABCD
 Example
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Design a logic circuit having 3 inputs, A, B, C will have its output

HIGH only when a majority of the inputs are HIGH

 Step 1 Set up the truth table

 Step 2 Write the minterms

for each case where the output is 1
 Example
53

 Step 3 Write the SOP form the output

 Step 4 Simplify the output expression

 Example
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 Step 5 Implement the circuit

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Karnaugh Maps
K-maps
 K-Map Forms
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Sum-of-Product (SOP) Form Product-of-Sum (POS) Form

Based on Based on maxterms

minterms
 SOP K-map
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 Table with 1 cell for each minterm

1 cell for each line of the truth table of a function

Truth table

K-map
 SOP K-map
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3 variable example:
x\ yz 00 01 11 10
represents
0 ? x’y’z’

1 ?? xyz’
 Each square represents 1 minterm
 Minterms are ordered according to Gray code
 only one variable changes between adjacent squares

 Squares on edges are considered adjacent to squares on opposite

edges
 4 variable example :

wx\ yz 00 01 11 10
w’xy’z
00

01 ? ?? w’xyz

11

10

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 Filling out a K-map
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K-map can be filled based on truth table or SOP

Truth table SOP form

K-map
 Simplification based on SOP K-
map
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 Finding adjacent 1’s in the k-map

 Remember that adjacent squares differ by only one variable
 Hence the combination of 2 adjacent squares has the form
P ( x + x’ )
 This can be simplified to just P
 Example
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Hence the Boolean function reduces to x + y

 Rules of SOP Grouping
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 Groupings can contain only 1’s; no 0’s

 Diagonal groups are not allowed
 The number of 1’s in a group must be a power of 2 – even if it
contains a single 1
 The groups must be made as large as possible
 Groups can overlap and wrap around the sides of the K-map
64

Hence the Boolean function reduces to z

65

Hence the Boolean function reduces to x’ +

z’
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 Choosing SOP K-map Groups
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 Possible to have different pick groups within a Kmap, while

keeping the groups as large as possible
 The (different) functions that result from the groupings below
are logically equivalent
 Don’t Care Conditions
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 Some minterms may never occur or not matter

 In K-map, X means “don't care”

 When minimizing , X is like a "joker"

 X can be 0 or 1 - whatever helps best with the minimization
 Example
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simplifies to B if X is assumed 1
 Don’t Care Example
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 Don’t Care Example w/ One
Grouping
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 Don’t Care Example w/ Different
Grouping
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 Don’t Care Origins
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 Realcircuits don’t always need to have an output

defined for every possible input

 Set
of inputs that can never happen = “don’t care”
condition
 K-Map with 5 variables
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76
 K-Map with 6 variables

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 POS K-map
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 Product-of-sums form
 Same principles as SOP K-map but applied to zeros
of the function
 Rules of POS Grouping
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 Groupings can contain only 0s; no 1s

 Diagonal groups are not allowed
 The number of 0s in a group must be a power of 2 –
even if it contains a single 0
 The groups must be made as large as possible
 Groups can overlap and wrap around the sides of the K-
map
 4-Variable SOP K-Map
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 4-Variable POS K-Map
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 Conversion between SOP and POS
forms
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84
Behind Logic Design
At transistor level
 Electrical Terminology
85

 Voltage
 Quantifiable property of electricity
 Measure of potential force
 Unit of measure: volt
 Current
 Quantifiable property of electricity
 Measure of electron flow along a path
 Unit of measure: ampere (amp)
 Electrical Analogy
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 Voltageis analogous to water pressure

 Current is analogous to flowing water
 Can have
 High pressure with little flow
 Large flow with little pressure
 Voltage
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 Can only be measured as difference between 2

points
 To measure voltage
 Assume one point represents zero volts (known as
ground)
 Express voltage of 2nd point wrt. ground
 In Practice
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 Typical digital circuit operates on 5 volts

 2 wires connect each chip to power supply
 Ground (0 volts)
 Power (5 volts)

 Digital
logic diagrams do not usually show power
and ground connections
 Transistor
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 Basic building block of digital circuits

 Operates on electrical current
large current is proportional to small
 3 external connections
current
 Emitter
 Base (control)
 Collector
 Transistors and Boolean Algebra
90

 Can implement Boolean functions with transistors

5 volts represent Boolean 1
0 volts represent Boolean 0
Not Gate at Transistor Level
 When input is 0 volts,
output is 5 volts

 When input is 5 volts,

output is 0 volts
2-Input NAND and NOR Gates
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Exercices
 Exercise
94

 Minimize the following Boolean function using

sum of products (SOP):
 • f(a,b,c,d) = ∑m(3,7,11,12,13,14,15)

abcd
3 0011 a`b`cd
7 0111 a`bcd

11 1011 ab`cd

12 1100 abc`d`

13 1101 abc`d

14 1110 abcd`

15 1111 abcd
 Exercise
95

f(a,b,c,d) = ∑m(3,7,11,12,13,14,15)
=a`b`cd + a`bcd + ab`cd + abc`d`+ abc`d + abcd` + abcd
=cd(a`b` + a`b + ab`) + ab(c`d` + c`d + cd` + cd )
=cd(a`[b` + b] + ab`) + ab(c`[d` + d] + c[d` + d])
=cd(a`[1] + ab`) + ab(c`[1] + c[1])
=ab+ab`cd + a`cd
=ab+cd(ab` + a`)
=ab+ cd(a + a`)(a`+b`)
= ab + a`cd + b`cd
= ab +cd(a` + b`)
 Exercise
96

 f(a,b,c,d) = ∏M(0,1,2,4,5,6,8,9,10)

=∑m(3,7,11,12,13,14,15)
=[(a+b+c+d)(a+b+c+d`)(a+b`+c`+d`)
(a`+b+c`+d`)(a`+b`+c+ d)(a`+b`+c+ d`)
(a`+b`+c`+d)(a`+b`+c`+d`)]
 Simplify algebraically
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 F(A,B,C) = B(A’+AC) + AB’C

= A’B + AC
 F(A,B,C,D) = ABC’ + A’C’D + AB’C’ + BC’D
+ A’D
= A’D + C’(A+BD)
 Simplify using K-maps
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 F(A,B,C,D) =∑m(0,1,2,3,8,9,10,11,13)
 F(A,B,C,D) = ∏M(1,3,4,5,8,9)