Introduction

• Schopenhauer and
Kierkegaard reacted against
Hegel’s philosophy.
• Karl Marx, the most
influential in rejecting
Hegel, aimed to ‘turn Hegel
upside down’ and replace
dialectical idealism with
dialectical materialism.
• This lecture explores their
backgrounds and key ideas.
Karl Marx’s Early Life

• Born in 1816, Marx’s father was

a liberal Jew turned Protestant.
• Studied law at Bonn University
but switched to philosophy at
Berlin University.
• Studied Hegelian philosophy
with the Young Hegelians,
including Ludwig Feuerbach
and Bruno Bauer.
• Learned to view history as a
dialectical process.
Hegel’s Concept of
Alienation

• Young Hegelians emphasized

Hegel’s concept of alienation.
• Alienation: Viewing something
intrinsic as exterior to oneself.
• Hegel’s emphasis: Individuals
as manifestations of a single
Spirit saw each other as rivals.
• Feuerbach: Religion as
supreme alienation, projecting
human life and consciousness
into an unreal heaven.
Marx’s Critique of
Hegel and Feuerbach

• Marx agreed that religion was

false consciousness.
• Hegel’s remedy: Translate
religious myths into idealist
metaphysics.
• Feuerbach’s remedy: Eliminate
religion and adopt a naturalistic
understanding of human life.
• Marx: Both remedies
inadequate, as alienation
extended to money and private
property.
Marx’s Philosophical
Mission

• Marx believed in social

upheaval, not philosophical
reflection.
• Famous quote: ‘The
philosophers have only
interpreted the world in
various ways; the point is to
change it.’
Marx’s Political
Career

• After obtaining a doctorate from

Jena University, Marx became a
political journalist in Cologne.
• Married Jenny von Westphalian
in 1843.

• Edited the Rheinische Zeitung

and moved to Paris.
• Met Friedrich Engels and
developed communist theory.
Materialist Conception
of History

• Marx and Engels presented the

materialist conception of history
in ‘The German Ideology’
• Life determines consciousness,
economic production shapes
history.
• Different modes of production
lead to social classes, conflict,
and political systems.
• Dialectical process leads to
proletarian revolution and
communism.
The Communist
Manifesto

• Published in 1848.
• Highlights the history of
class struggles and the
need to abolish exploitation
and class distinctions.
• Famous closing sentences:
‘Working men of all
countries, unite’
Marx’s later life
• Marx lived in London, often
in poverty.
• Devoted himself to
developing dialectical
materialism.
• Wrote ‘Capital’ and
founded the First
International.
Marx’s legacy

• Marx’s predictions of
proletarian revolution did not
materialize, but his ideas
influenced political activism
and regimes.
• His theories, though not
purely scientific, continue to
shape political thought and
discussions on economic Women in the pro-communist Afghan militia in the
factor’s influence on society. early 1980s.
 Introduction to
Phenomenology:
Origins and Objectives

• Phenomenology: A philosophical movement

of the 20th century.
• Objective: Direct investigation and description
of phenomena as consciously experienced.
• Emphasis: Examine phenomena without
causal explanations, free from
preconceptions.
• Historical roots: The term dates back to the
18th century, applied by Johann Heinrich
Lambert.
• Association with Hegel’s ‘Phenomenology of
Mind’ in the 19th century.
• Phenomenological movement officially begins
in the early 20th century.
Characteristics of
Phenomenology
• Diverse spectrum stemming from the work of
Edmund Husserl.
• Common denominator elusive due to
variations.
Key features:
• Adherence to ‘zu den Sachen selbst’ (to the
things themselves’).
• Fresh approach to phenomena, minimizing
conceptual presuppositions.
• Describing phenomena faithfully based on
concrete examples.
• Insight into essential structures through
systematic variation of examples.
• Emphasis on studying intentional consciousness
and the appearance of phenomena.
Essential Features and
Variations
Departures from Husserl’s views were
viewed as heresies, but a more generous
assessment allows for diversity.

• Suspension of belief (epoch) in the

reality of phenomena, a concept by
Husserl.
• Existential phenomenology explores
meanings of phenomena through
interpretive (‘hermeneutic’)
phenomenology.
Contrasts with Related
Movements
Distinctive essence compared to philosophical
neighbors:
• Contrasts with positivism and traditional
empiricism.
• Acceptance of nonsensory ‘categorial’ data.
• Recognition of synthetic a priori
knowledge.
• Distinctions from phenomenalism:

• Rejects rigid appearance vs. reality division.

• Challenges the idea that phenomena are all
that exist.
Opposition to
rationalism:
• Emphasizes intuitive foundation and
verification of concepts.
• Resisting transforming reinterpretations:
• Analyzes the given without simplifying or
applying ‘Ockham’s razor’
• Ordinary-language philosophy
connection:
• Respects distinctions in ordinary language
but deems it insufficient for thorough
analysis.
• Engagement with existential philosophy:
• Phenomenology believes in analyzing
human existence cautiously.
Introduction to
Phenomenology and
Husserl’s Development

The Growth of Phenomenology

• Phenomenology evolved rather than being
founded, with its origin in Husserl.
Husserl’s career:
• Professorships at Göttingen and Freiburg im
Breisgau.
• Wrote ‘Die Idee der Phänomenologie’ (The
Idea of Phenomenology) in 1906.
• Gradual development of phenomenology as
a new method for philosophy and science.
Husserl’s background:
• Trained as a mathematician.
• Attracted to philosophy by Brentano’s
descriptive psychology.
Brentano’s Influence
and Intentionality
Brentano’s concept of intentionality:
• Present in ‘Psychologie vom empirischen
Standpunkte’ (1874).
• Defines psychic phenomena as
intentional, containing an object in
themselves.
• Dissociation from Hamilton’s philosophy
of the ‘unconditioned’

Husserl’s point of departure in ‘Über den

Begriff der Zahl (1887) and ‘Philosophie der
Arithmetik (1891):
• Exploration of the constitution of
numbers as a mental achievement.
• Introduction of concepts like reflection,
constitution, and description.
• Criticism from Gottlob Frege leads to
analysis of psychologism.
Logical Investigations and
Phenomenology’s
Essence
• Logische Untersuchungen (1900–01) and
Prolegomena:
• Criticism of psychologism
• Careful investigation of psychic acts
revealing logical structures.
• Distinguishing between perceptual and
categorical intuition.
• Clear formulation of phenomenology’s
concern in ‘Philosophie als strenge
Wissenschaft’ (1910–11).
• Husserl’s struggle against two
unacceptable views: naturalism and
historicism.
Phenomenology vs.
Naturalism

Naturalism:
• Application of natural sciences methods
to all knowledge domains.
• Unsuccessful in providing a foundation for
human sciences.
• The philosopher’s task is to examine the
relationship between consciousness and
Being.
• Consciousness as the locus for
constituting and founding meaning.
Phenomenology vs.
Historicism

Historicism:
• Emphasizes thinkers immersion in a
historical setting.
• Implies relativism, which Husserl objected
to.
• Credit to Dilthey’s typification of
worldviews but rejection of the
skepticism of relativity.
• Distinction: History deals with facts, while
phenomenology deals with the
knowledge of essences.
Phenomenology'
s Goal and Objects

• Objects of phenomenology: Absolute

data in pure, immanent intuition.
• Goal: Discover essential structures of acts
(noesis) and objective entities (noema).
• Distinction from worldviews:
Phenomenology seeks rigorous scientific
knowledge of essences.
In summary, phenomenology, originating
with Husserl’s gradual development, delves
into the intentional nature of consciousness,
distinguishing itself from naturalism and
historicism. The goal is a rigorous scientific
understanding of the essence of conscious
acts and the objective entities they
correspond to.