Chapter 2

Functions, Limits, and the Derivative
2
• Functions and Their Graphs
• The Algebra of Functions
• Functions and Mathematical Models
• Limits
• One-Sided Limits and Continuity
• The Derivative Copyright © 2006 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.
Function
A rule that assigns to each element in a set A (the
domain), one and only one element in a set B (the
range)
Domain Range
1 -1
3 1
-4 -6
Copyright © 2006 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.

Function Notation
y  3x 2  2 is a function, with values of x as
the domain and values of y as the range.
We write f ( x) in place of y.
This is read “f of x.”
2
So f ( x )  3 x 2
NOTE: It is not f times x

Function Notation
Example
Find f ( 2), f (0), and f (b  1), where f ( x)  3 x 2  2.
Solution
2
f (2)  3(2)  2  3(4)  2  14
Plug in –2
f (0)  3(0) 2  2  2
f (b  1)  3(b  1) 2  2
 3(b 2  2b  1)  2  3b 2  6b  5
Domain of a Function
The domain of a function is the set of values for x
for which f (x) is a real number.
2x
Ex. Find the domain of f ( x) 
3x  1
Since division by zero is undefined we must
1
have 3x  1  0  x  .
3
The domain can be expressed as the intervals
 1 1 
  ,  and  ,
 3 3 
Domain of a Function
Ex. Find the domain of f ( x)  7 x  5
Since the square root of a negative number is
undefined we must have
5
7 x  5  0  7x  5  x   .
7
5
The domain is all values of x that satisfy x   .
7
The domain can be expressed as the interval
 5 
 ,
 7 

Graph of a Function
The graph of a function is the set of all points (x, y)
such that x is in the domain of f and y = f (x).
Given the graph of y = f (x),
find f (1). y
f (1) = 2
(1, 2)
x

Graph of a Function
Vertical Line Test: The graph of a function can be
crossed at most once by any vertical line.
Function Not a Function
It is crossed
more than
once.

Example
Sketch the graph of the function:
 2x  5 x  2
f ( x)   .
 x  7 x  2

Algebra of Functions

 f  g  x   f ( x)  g ( x) Domain:
 f  g  x   f ( x)  g ( x) Domain of f intersected
 fg  x   f ( x) g ( x) with the domain of g.
 f 
  x 
g
f ( x)
g ( x)  Domain:
Domain of f intersected
with the domain of g with
the exclusion of all values
of x, such that g(x) = 0.
2
Given f ( x)  3 x  1 and g ( x)  x  2 x  3
 f  g  
x  3 x  1  x 2
 2x  3
2
 x  x4
 f  g  x   3x  1  ( x 2
 2 x  3)
  x2  5x  2
 fg  x   3x  1  x 2
 2x  3 
 3x3  7 x 2  7 x  3
 f  3x  1
  x  2
g x  2x  3
2

, x  2x  3  0 
Composition of Functions
 f  g  x   f ( g ( x))
2
Ex. Given f ( x)  , g ( x)  x3  3 find
3x  5
 f  g  ( x) and  g  f  (1).
 f  g  ( x )  f  
g ( x )  f x 
3
3 
2 2
 
3
3 x 3 5 3 x 3
 14
 g  f  (1)  g  f (1)   g  1  4

Types of Functions
Polynomial Functions
n
P ( x)  an x  an 1 x n 1
 ...  a0  an  0 
n is a nonnegative integer, each ai is a constant.
1 4 3
Ex. f ( x)  x  x  12 x  5
2
Rational Functions
f x
F ( x)  polynomials
g ( x)
3x  4
Ex. F ( x) 
2 x  7 x2
Types of Functions
Power Functions
r
f ( x)  x ( r is any real number)
2
Ex. g ( x)  x
Ex. f ( x ) 
1 1/ 3
3
 x
x

Application Example 1 (Functions )
A shirt producer has a fixed monthly cost of $5000.
If each shirt costs $3 and sells for $12 find:
a. The cost function
Cost: C(x) = 3x + 5000 where x is the number
of shirts produced.
b. The revenue function
Revenue: R(x) = 12x where x is the number of
shirts sold.
c. The profit from 900 shirts
Profit: P(x) = Revenue – Cost
= 12x – (3x + 5000) = 9x – 5000
P(900) = 9(900) – 5000 = 3100, or $3100.
Application Example 2 (Functions)
A division of Chapman Corporation manufactures a
pager. The weekly fixed cost for the division is
$20,000, and the variable cost for producing x
pagers/week is
V ( x )  0.000001x 3  0.01x 2  50 x dollars.
The company realizes a revenue of

R ( x)  0.02 x 2  150 x  0  x  7500  dollars
from the sale of x pagers/week. ......
1. Find the total cost function.
The total cost function is the variable cost plus the
fixed cost:
C ( x)  0.000001x  0.01x  50 x  20,000
3 2
2. Find the total profit function.

The profit is the revenue minus the total cost
P ( x)  0.02 x  150 x 
2
 0.000001x3  0.01x 2  50 x  20,000 

P( x)  0.000001x 3  0.01x 2  100 x  20, 000
......
3. What is the profit for the company if 2000 units
are produced and sold each week?
Since the profit function is
P( x)  0.000001x 3  0.01x 2  100 x  20, 000
we have
P(2000) 
0.000001(2000)3  0.01(2000)2  100(2000)  20, 000
 132, 000, or $132,000

Introduction to Calculus
There are two main areas of focus:
1. Finding the tangent line to a curve at a given
y
point. y  f ( x)
 x1 , y1 
x
tangent line
2. Finding the area of a planar region bounded by

a given curve. y
Area
x
Velocity
Average  Distance covered Over any time
Elapsed time interval
If I travel 200 miles in 5 hours, my average

velocity is 40 miles/hour.
Distance covered As elapsed time

Instantaneous 
Elapsed time approaches zero
When I see the police officer, my instantaneous

velocity is 60 miles/hour.
Velocity
Ex. Given the position function s t   t 2  10t
where t is in seconds and s(t) is measured in
feet, find:
a. The average velocity for t = 1 to t = 3.
s (3)  s (1) 39  11
Velocityave    14 ft/sec
3 1 2
b. The instantaneous velocity at t = 1.
t Average velocity
s (t )  s (1)

Notice how 1.1 12.1 t 1
elapsed time 1.01 12.01
approaches zero 1.001 12.001
Answer: 12 ft/sec
Limit of a Function
The limit of f (x), as x approaches a, equals L
written: lim f ( x)  L
x a
if we can make the value f (x) arbitrarily close

to L by taking x to be sufficiently close to a.
y
y  f ( x)
L
x
a

Computing Limits
3 x if x  2
Ex. lim f ( x) where f ( x)  
x 2
1 if x  2
y lim f ( x) = lim  3 x
x 2 x 2
6  3 lim x
x 2
Note: f (-2) = 1  3(2)  6

x
is not involved -2

Properties of Limits
Suppose lim f ( x)  L and lim g ( x)  M
x a x a
Then,
1. lim  f ( x)   Lr
r
r , a real number
x a
2. lim cf ( x)  c lim f ( x)  cL c, a real number
x a x a
3. lim  f ( x)  g ( x)   L  M
x a
4. lim  f ( x) g ( x)   LM
x a
f ( x ) lim f ( x) L
5. lim  x a  Provided that M  0
x a g ( x ) lim g ( x) M
x a

Computing Limits
Ex. lim  x  1  lim x  lim1
2 2
x 3 x 3 x 3
   lim1
2
 lim x
x 3 x 3
 32  1  10
2x 1 lim  2 x  1 2 lim x  lim1

x 1
Ex. lim   x 1 x 1
x 1 3 x  5 lim 3 x  5  3lim x  lim 5
x 1 x 1 x 1
2 1 1
 
35 8

0
Indeterminate Form: 0
x5 0
Ex. xlim
5 x 2  25
Notice form
0
x5
 lim Factor and cancel
x 5  x  5  x  5 
common factors
1 1
 lim 
x 5  x  5  10

Limits at Infinity
1 1
For all n > 0, lim n  lim n  0
x  x x  x
1
provided that n is defined.
x 5 1
2 3  2
3x  5 x  1 x x Divide
Ex. xlim  lim 2
 2  4x 2 x  2 by x
 4
x2
5  1 
lim 3  lim    lim  2 
x  x   x  x   x  3 0 0 3
  
 2  04 4
lim  2   lim 4
x   x  x 

One-Sided Limit of a Function
The right-hand limit of f (x), as x approaches a,
equals L
written: lim f ( x)  L
x a

to L by taking x to be sufficiently close to the
right of a.
y  f ( x)
L

The left-hand limit of f (x), as x approaches a,
equals M
written: lim f ( x)  M
x a

to M by taking x to be sufficiently close to the
left of a. y
y  f ( x)
M
x
a

 x 2 if x  3
Ex. Given f ( x)  
2x if x  3
Find lim f ( x)
x 3
lim f ( x)  lim 2 x  6
x 3 x 3
Find lim f ( x)
x 3
lim f ( x)  lim x 2  9
x 3 x 3

Continuity of a Function
A function f is continuous at the point x = a if
the following are true:
i ) f (a ) is defined
y
ii ) lim f ( x) exists
x a
iii ) lim f ( x)  f (a )
x a f(a)
x
a

Properties of Continuous Functions
The constant function f (x) is continuous
everywhere.
Ex. f (x) = 10 is continuous everywhere.
The identity function f (x) = x is continuous

everywhere.

Properties of Continuous Functions
If f and g are continuous at x = a, then
f
f  g , fg , and  g (a)  0  are continuous
g
at x  a.
A polynomial function y = P(x) is continuous at
everywhere.
p( x)
A rational function R( x)  is continuous
q( x)
at all x values in its domain.

Intermediate Value Theorem
If f is a continuous function on a closed interval [a, b]
and L is any number between f (a) and f (b), then there
is at least one number c in [a, b] such that f(c) = L.
y
y  f ( x)
f (b)
f (c) = L
f (a)
x
a c b

Intermediate Value Theorem
Ex.
Given f ( x)  3 x 2  2 x  5. Show that f ( x)  0
has at least one solution on 1, 2 .
f (1)  4  0 and f (2)  3  0
f (x) is continuous for all values of x and since

f (1) < 0 and f (2) > 0, by the Intermediate Value
Theorem, there exists a c on (1, 2) such that
f (c) = 0.
Existence of Zeros of a Continuous
Function
If f is a continuous function on a closed interval [a, b],
and f(a) and f(b) have opposite signs, then there is at least
one solution of the equation f(x) = 0 in the interval (a, b).
y
f(b)
a
x
b
f(a)

Example
(Existence of zeros of a continuous function )
Let f ( x)  x  3 x  5.
2
1. Show that f(x) is a continuous function everywhere.

The function is a polynomial function and is
therefore continuous everywhere.
2. Show that f(x) = 0 has at least one solution on the
interval (0, 2)
Since f (0)  5 and f (2)  5 have opposite signs,
there must be at least one number x  c with
0  c  2 such that f (c)  0.
Rates of Change
Average rate of change of f over the interval
[x, x+h] f ( x  h)  f ( x )
 Slope of Secant Line
h
Instantaneous rate of change of f at x
f ( x  h)  f ( x ) Slope of the
 lim
h 0 h Tangent Line

The Derivative
The derivative of a function f with respect to x is
the function f , given by
f ( x  h)  f ( x )
f ( x)  lim
h 0 h
It is read “f prime of x.”

The Derivative
Four-step process for finding f  :
1. Compute f ( x  h)
2. Find f ( x  h)  f ( x )
3. Find
f ( x  h)  f ( x )
h
f ( x  h)  f ( x )
4. Compute f ( x)  lim
h 0 h

The Derivative
Given f ( x)  2 x 2  1, find f ( x).
1. f ( x  h)  2  x  h   1  2 x  4 xh  2h  1
2 2 2
2 2 2
2. f ( x  h)  f ( x )  2 x  4 xh  2h  1  (2 x  1)
 4 xh  2h 2
f ( x  h)  f ( x) 4 xh  2h 2
3. 
h h
2
4. lim f ( x  h)  f ( x )  lim 4 xh  2h
h 0 h h 0 h
 lim  4 x  2h   4 x  f ( x)  4 x
h 0
Example
Find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of
f ( x)  2 x  3 at any point (x, f(x)).
Step 1.
f ( x  h)  2( x  h)  3  2 x  2h  3
Step 2.
f ( x  h)  f ( x)  (2 x  2h  3)  (2 x  3)  2h
Step 3.
f ( x  h)  f ( x) 2h
  2
h h
Step 4.
f ( x  h)  f ( x )
f ( x)  lim  lim  2   2
h 0 h h 0
Differentiability and Continuity
If a function is differentiable at x = a, then it is
continuous at x = a.
y
Not
Continuous
x
Still
Not Continuous
Differentiable
Example
The function f ( x )  x is not differentiable at
x = 0 but it is continuous everywhere.
y
f ( x)  x
x
O

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Functions, Limits, and the Derivative

Copyright © 2006 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.

NOTE: It is not f times x

Copyright © 2006 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.

Copyright © 2006 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.

Copyright © 2006 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.

Function Not a Function

Copyright © 2006 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.

Copyright © 2006 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.

 fg  x   f ( x) g ( x) with the domain of g.

 g  f  (1)  g  f (1)   g  1  4

Copyright © 2006 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.

The company realizes a revenue of

2. Find the total profit function.

 0.000001x3  0.01x 2  50 x  20,000 

P( x)  0.000001x 3  0.01x 2  100 x  20, 000

Copyright © 2006 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.

2. Finding the area of a planar region bounded by

If I travel 200 miles in 5 hours, my average

Distance covered As elapsed time

When I see the police officer, my instantaneous

if we can make the value f (x) arbitrarily close

Copyright © 2006 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.

Note: f (-2) = 1  3(2)  6

Copyright © 2006 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.

Copyright © 2006 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.

2x 1 lim  2 x  1 2 lim x  lim1

Copyright © 2006 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.

Copyright © 2006 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.

Copyright © 2006 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.

if we can make the value f (x) arbitrarily close

Copyright © 2006 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.

if we can make the value f (x) arbitrarily close

Copyright © 2006 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.

Copyright © 2006 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.

Copyright © 2006 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.

The identity function f (x) = x is continuous

Copyright © 2006 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.

Copyright © 2006 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.

Copyright © 2006 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.

f (1)  4  0 and f (2)  3  0

f (x) is continuous for all values of x and since

Copyright © 2006 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.

1. Show that f(x) is a continuous function everywhere.

Instantaneous rate of change of f at x

Copyright © 2006 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.

It is read “f prime of x.”

Copyright © 2006 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.

Copyright © 2006 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.

Copyright © 2006 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.

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