Unit 3

Smart Sensors
Primary Mechanical Sensors
Sensors in Mechatronics System
Sensors
Sensors
Sensors
Sensors
Classification of Sensors
Selection of Sensors
Need of Signal Conditioning
Data Transmission
Smart Sensors
 Smart Sensors
• The sensor and computer are housed directly at the site of the
measurement.

• In this case we see that the feedback signal is delivered to the valve
via the standard 4–20 mA current transmission.

• Operation of the flow control loop is monitored via the serial

interface, which is also used to update the set point, controller mode
gains, and other operating parameters.

• In a further refinement of the smart sensor concepts the 4–20 mA

connection is eliminated.
• The signal-conditioning system of the valve contains a network
interface circuit so that it can be connected to the serial bus.

• In this case the smart sensor sends feedback information to the valve
via the serial bus.
Smart Sensors
 Intelligent Sensor
WWW
 Intelligent Sensor
 What is intelligence
 Intelligent Sensor
 Problems with conventional sensors
 Intelligent Sensor
 Problems with conventional sensors
Intelligent Sensor

Architecture of Intelligent Sensor

 Intelligent Sensor
 Capabilities of Intelligent sensors

 Compensation
 Intelligent Sensor
 Capabilities of Intelligent sensors
Integration
 Intelligent Sensor
 Applications of Intelligent sensors
 Intelligent Sensor
 Example of Intelligent sensors
 Intelligent Sensor
 Example of Intelligent sensors
 Fuzzy Logic
 An Approach for nonlinear mapping of one set of variables into
another set of variables.

 Principle of operation of the fuzzy controller significantly differs

from neural networks.

 The block diagram of a fuzzy controller is shown in Figure. In the

first step, analog inputs are converted into a set of fuzzy variables. In
this step, for each analog input, 3–9 fuzzy variables typically are
generated. Each fuzzy variable has an analog value between zero
and one.

 In the next step, a fuzzy logic is applied to the input fuzzy variables
and a resulting set of output variables is generated.

 In the last step, known as defuzzification, from a set of output fuzzy

variables, one or more output analog variables are generated, which
are used as control variables.
 Fuzzy Logic

Block Diagram of Fuzzy Controller

 For Detailed Information refer Page No. 963 to 967 of Topic 32.7 from
Mechatronics Handbook
 Fuzzy Logic
 Fuzzification: The purpose of fuzzification is to convert an analog
variable input into a set of fuzzy variables.

 For higher accuracy, more fuzzy variables will be chosen.

 To illustrate the fuzzification process, consider that the input

variable is the temperature and is coded into five fuzzy variables:
cold, cool, normal, warm, and hot as shown in figure.

 Each fuzzy variable should obtain a value between zero and one,
which describes a degree of association of the analog input
(temperature) within the given fuzzy variable.

 Sometimes, instead of the term degree of association, the term

degree of membership is used.
Fuzzy Logic
 Fuzzy Logic
Rule Evaluation
 In contrary to Boolean logic where variables can have only binary
states, in fuzzy logic all variables may have any values between
zero and one.

The fuzzy logic consists of the same basic: ∧—AND, ∨—OR, and
NOT operators:

A ∧ B ∧ C ⇒ min{A, B, C}—smallest value of A or B or C

A ∨ B ∨ C ⇒ max{A, B, C}—largest value of A or B or C
A ⇒ 1 1–A—one minus value of A

 Fuzzy rules are specified in the fuzzy table as it is shown for a

given system.

 Consider a simple system with two analog input variables x and

y, and one output variable z.
 Fuzzy Logic

Fuzzy tables: Table with fuzzy rules,

(b) Table with the intermediate variables tij.
 Fuzzy Logic
Defuzzification
 As a result of fuzzy rule evaluation, each analog output variable is
represented by several fuzzy variables.

 The purpose of defuzzification is to obtain analog outputs. This can

be done by using a membership function.

 In the first step, fuzzy variables obtained from rule evaluations are
used to modify the membership function employing the formula-
µK∗ (z) = min {µK (z), zK}

 For example, if the output fuzzy variables are 0, 0.2, 0.7, 0.0, then the
modified membership functions have shapes shown by the thick line
in Figure.

 The analog value of the z variable is found as a center of gravity of

modified membership function µK∗ (z).
Fuzzy Logic

Defuzzification process
 Neural Networks
 A biological neuron is a complicated structure, which receives trains of
pulses on hundreds of Excitatory and inhibitory inputs. Those incoming
pulses are summed with different weights (averaged) during the time
period of latent summation.
 If the summed value is higher than a threshold, then the neuron itself is
generating a pulse, which is sent to neighbouring neurons.
 Because incoming pulses are summed with time, the neuron generates a
pulse train with a higher frequency for higher positive excitation.
 In other words, if the value of the summed weighted inputs is higher, the
neuron generates pulses more frequently.
 At the same time, each neuron is characterized by the non-excitability for a
certain time after the firing pulse. This so-called refractory period can be more
accurately described as a phenomenon where after excitation the threshold
value increases to a very high value and then decreases gradually with a
certain time constant.
 The refractory period sets soft upper limits on the frequency of the output
pulse train.
 In the biological neuron, information is sent in the form of frequency
modulated pulse trains.
 Neural Networks
 Feedforward neural networks allow only one-directional signal
flow.
 Furthermore, most feedforward neural networks are organized in
layers.
 The three-layer feedforward neural network consists of input
nodes, two hidden layers and an output layer.
 A single neuron is capable of separating input patterns into two
categories, and this separation is linear.
 For example for patterns shown in figure, the separation line is
crossing x1 and x2 axes at x10 and x20.
 This separation can be achieved with a neuron having the
following weights: w1= 1/x10, w2=1/x20 and w3= -1.
 In general for n dimensions, the weights are
 Neural Networks

Linear Separation of Patterns in 2 Dimensional Space by a Single Neuron

 For Detailed Information refer Page No. 946 to 949 of Topic 32.2 and
Topic 32.3 from Mechatronics Handbook
 Neural Networks
 One neuron can divide only linearly separated patterns. To select just one
region in n-dimensional input space, more than n+1 neurons should be
used.
 If more input clusters are to be selected, then the number of neurons in the
input (hidden) layer should be properly multiplied.
 If the number of neurons in the input (hidden) layer is not limited, then all
classification problems can be solved using the three-layer network.
 An example of such a neural network, classifying three clusters in the two-
dimensional space, is shown in Figure.
 Neurons in the first hidden layer create the separation lines between input
clusters.
 Neurons in the second hidden layer perform the AND operation.
 Output neurons perform the OR operation for each category.
 The linear separation property of neurons makes some problems especially
difficult for neural networks, such as exclusive OR, parity computation for
several bits, or to separate patterns laying on two neighbouring spirals.
 The feedforward neural network is also used for nonlinear transformation
(mapping) of a multidimensional input variable into another
multidimensional variable in the output.
 Neural Networks

Three Layer Neural Network with 2 Inputs for classification of 3

different Clusters into One Category
 Biometric Sensors
• The word “biometrics” comes from the Greek language and is derived
from the words bio (life) and metric (to measure).

• Biometrics /characteristics include fingerprints, voice patterns, hand

measurements, irises and others, all used to identify human
characteristics and to verify identity.

• Since biometrics can better solve the problems of access control, fraud
and theft, more and more organizations are considering biometrics a
solution to their security problems.

• Fingerprinting or finger-scanning technologies is the oldest of the

biometric sciences and utilizes distinctive features of the fingerprint to
identify or verify the identity of individuals.

• Retina-scan technology makes use of the retina, which is the surface

on the back of the eye that processes light entering through the pupil.
Fingerprint Scanner
 Fingerprint Scanner
• Like optical scanners, capacitive fingerprint scanners generate an
image of the ridges and valleys that make up a fingerprint. But instead
of sensing the print using light, the capacitors use electrical current.

• The diagram shows a simple capacitive sensor. The sensor is made up

of one or more semiconductor chips containing an array of tiny cells.

• Each cell includes two conductor plates, covered with an insulating

layer. The cells are tiny -- smaller than the width of one ridge on a
finger.

• The sensor is connected to an integrator, an electrical circuit built

around an inverting operational amplifier.

• The two conductor plates form a basic capacitor. The surface of the
finger acts as a third capacitor plate, separated by the insulating layers
in the cell structure and, in the case of the fingerprint valleys, a pocket
of air.
 Fingerprint Scanner
• Varying the distance between the capacitor plates (by moving the
finger closer or farther away from the conducting plates) changes
the total capacitance (ability to store charge) of the capacitor.
Because of this quality, the capacitor in a cell under a ridge will
have a greater capacitance than the capacitor in a cell under a valley.

• To scan the finger, the processor first closes the reset switch for each
cell, which shorts each amplifier's input and output to "balance" the
integrator circuit.

• When the switch is opened again, and the processor applies a fixed
charge to the integrator circuit, the capacitors charge up.

• The capacitance of the feedback loop's capacitor affects the voltage

at the amplifier's input, which affects the amplifier's output. Since
the distance to the finger alters capacitance, a finger ridge will result
in a different voltage output than a finger valley.
 Fingerprint Scanner
• The scanner processor reads this voltage output and determines
whether it is characteristic of a ridge or a valley.

• By reading every cell in the sensor array, the processor can put
together an overall picture of the fingerprint, similar to the image
captured by an optical scanner.

• The main advantage of a capacitive scanner is that it requires a real

fingerprint-type shape, rather than the pattern of light and dark
that makes up the visual impression of a fingerprint.

• This makes the system harder to trick. Additionally, since they use
a semiconductor chip rather than a CCD unit, capacitive scanners
tend to be more compact that optical devices.
 Retina Scanner
• Developed in the 1980s, retinal scanning is one of the most well-
known biometric technologies, but it is also one of the least
deployed.

• Retinal scans map the unique patterns of a person’s retina. The

blood vessels within the retina absorb light more readily than the
surrounding tissue and are easily identified with appropriate
lighting.

• A retinal scan is performed by casting an unperceived beam of

low-energy infrared light into a person’s eye as they look through
the scanner’s eyepiece. This beam of light traces a standardized
path on the retina.

• Once the scanner device captures a retinal image, specialized

software compiles the unique features of the network of retinal
blood vessels into a template.
 Retina Scanner
• Retinal scan algorithms require a high-quality image and will not let
a user enroll or verify until the system is able to capture an image of
sufficient quality. The retina template generated is typically one of
the smallest of any biometric technology.

• Retinal scan is a highly dependable technology because it is highly

accurate and difficult to spoof, in terms of identification.

• The technology, however, has notable disadvantages including

difficult image acquisition and limited user applications.

• Often enrollment in a retinal scan biometric system is lengthy due to

requirement of multiple image capture, which can cause user
discomfort. However, once user is acclimated to the process, an
enrolled person can be identified with a retinal scan process in
seconds.
 Retina Scanner
• Retinal scan technology has robust matching capabilities and is
typically configured to do one-to-many identification against a
database of users.

• However, because quality image acquisition is so difficult, many

attempts are often required to get to the point where a match can
take place.

• While the algorithms themselves are robust, it can be a difficult

process to provide sufficient data for matching to take place. In
many cases, a user may be falsely rejected because of an inability to
provide adequate data to generate a match template.

• Because retinal blood vessels are more absorbent of log-energy

infrared light than the rest of the eye, the amount of reflection varies
during the scan. The pattern of variations is converted to computer
code and stored in a database.
 Retina Scanner
• Retinal scans should therefore not be confused with another ocular-
based technology, iris recognition, which is described as the process of
recognizing a person by analyzing the random pattern of the iris.

• The retina’s intricate network of blood vessels is a physiological

characteristic that remains stable throughout the life of a person.

• As with fingerprints and iris patterns, genetic factors do not determine

the exact pattern of blood vessels in the retina. This allows retinal scan
technology to differentiate between identical twins and provide robust
identification.

• The retina contains at least as much individual data as a fingerprint, but,

unlike a fingerprint, is an internal organ and is less susceptible to either
intentional or unintentional modification.

• Certain eye-related medical conditions and diseases, such as cataracts

and glaucoma, can render a person unable to use retina-scan technology,
 Nanosensors
 The progress made in the area of nanotechnology has fuelled the
development of nanosensors.
 These are relatively new sensors that take one step further in the
direction of miniaturization and are expected to open new avenues
for sensing applications.
 Nanosensors refer to sensors with characteristic length scale on the
order of 1 nm to 1 mm.
 Nanosensors are used for detecting physical variables such as force,
pressure, tactile contact, acceleration, rotation, temperature, and
acoustic waves.
 Nanosensors are based on a number of transduction principles,
including electrostatic, piezoresistive, piezoelectric, and
electromagnetic (including optical sensing).
 There are two main approaches in the manufacturing of
nanosensors: top-down methods, which begin with a pattern
generated at a larger scale, and then reduced to microscale. Bottom-
up methods start with atoms or molecules that build up to
nanostructures.
 Biosensors
 There are different types of Biosensors used to measure physiological
parameters. Pulse Oximeter is an example of biosensors.
Pulse Oximeters are commonly used for pulse measurement.
There are two approaches to developing a probe for pulse measurement.
The first is transmittance, the second is reflectance.
The difference is in the way the elements within the probe are positioned.
A transmittance probe has a LED on one side and a photodiode (light
detector) on the other. The tissue to be imaged (commonly a finger or an
ear) is inserted between the two.
 A reflectance probe has the LED and the photodiode on the same side. It
must be placed over a point with underlying bone. Light emitted by the
LED, passes through tissue and blood vessels, reflects off bone, passes
through the tissues again, and is then detected.
 A significant amount of light will reflect off the skin in the reflectance
setup, and, unlike in the transmittance setup, this light will be detected.
Thus, reflectance probes have a high offset and a lower signal-to-noise
ratio than the transmittance probes. Reflectance setups also require a
significantly greater amount of light. Thus, either more LEDs or more
photodiodes need to be used.
 Biosensors
• Transmittance probes are commonly placed on a finger or ear and
are very convenient to attach and remove.
• Reflectance probes can be placed on the forehead or the sternum.

 For Detailed Information refer Theory of Biosensor Practical form

Sensor Modeling and Simulation Lab of the Vlabs.
 Biosensors
 A typical Pulse Oximeter uses the basic principle of a pair of small LEDs
operating at two different wavelengths; one red LED with a wavelength
of 660nm, the other, an infrared LED with a wavelength of 910nm.

 The LEDs are designed to be placed opposite a photodiode that detects

the light from the LEDs.

 As the amount of blood in the capillaries depends on the actual blood

pressure, which varies around the heart the heart pulse cycle, the heart
rate can also be measured.

 The two wavelengths are chosen for the reason that deoxygenated
haemoglobin has a higher absorption at around 660nm and at 910nm
oxygenated haemoglobin has the higher absorption.

 The oxygenated haemoglobin allows red light to transmit through and

absorbs more infrared light while the deoxygenated haemoglobin allows
infrared to transmit through and absorbs more red light.
 Biosensors
 Usually a finger is placed between the source (LEDs) and the
receiver (photodiode) acting as a translucent site with good blood
flow.

 The photodiode produces current linearly proportional to the

intensity of light striking it.

 A photodiode cannot distinguish between red and infrared light,

but to accommodate this, the microprocessor system alternately
turns each LED on and off.

 The pulse oximeter repeatedly samples the photodiode output while

the red LED is on, while the infrared LED is on and while both are
off.

 By sampling with both LEDs off, the pulse oximeter is able to

subtract any ambient light that is present.
Biosensors
Measurement & Control System