RESEARCH IN

CLINICAL
PSYCHOLOGY
Why do clinical psychologists do research?
 TREATMENT OUTCOME
• Primary reason: to determine how well their therapies work
• Hans Eysenck (1952) - unfavorable review of psychotherapy outcome served as a
landmark research and a catalyst for additional investigations on the subject
• Researches established that psychotherapy is indeed effective
• Moved on to exploring new psychotherapies for treating specific disorders
• Clinical psychology includes scientific study and application of psychology for the
purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychological-based distress or
dysfunction.
• It promotes subjective (preventing a person from psychological disorder) well being and
personal development.
• Clinical psychology has a rich history of empirical research in domains of assessment,
diagnosis, psychotherapy, etc.
 Efficacy vs. Effectiveness
• There are studies which measure efficacy and others measure effectiveness
• Efficacy- refers to the success of a particular therapy in a controlled study
conducted with clients who were chosen according to particular study criteria
• In short, how well it works ‘in the lab’
• Outcome for treated individuals is compared to outcome for individuals who
receive alternate or no treatment
• E.g. CBT for Panic Disorder- controlled, quasi experimental setting
• Typically features well-defined groups of patients, usually meeting diagnostic
criteria, manualized treatment guidelines, and random assignment
 Effectiveness
• Refers to the success of a therapy in actual clinical settings in which client
problems span a wider range and are not chosen as a result of meeting certain
diagnostic criteria
• In short, how well it works ‘in the real world’
• How well it translates from the lab to the clinics, hospitals, etc.
• No designed and controlled experiments
• No un-treated control group
• Includes complex diagnostic profiles, allows greater variability between
therapists’ methods
• Lacks internal validity because the researchers control and manipulate fewer
variables
Internal vs. External Validity
• Internal Validity- refers to the extent to
which the change in the dependent
variable is solely due to the change in
independent variable
• External Validity- refers to the
generalizability of the result, to what
extent is the same finding valid for
different settings and populations?
• When an efficacy study is designed, aim is to minimize any element
of the study that may bring into question the causal connection
between the treatment and the outcome
• The more “controlled” and internally valid an efficacy study is, the
more dissimilar it can become from therapy in the “real world,”
thus undermining external validity
• The more the internally valid, the lesser the external validity
• Efficacy studies are respected for their internal validity but
discounted for external validity
 ASSESSMENT METHODS
• Clinical psychologists conduct research to evaluate and improve the
assessment methods that they use with clients
• Such studies may involve;
• the development, validation, or expanded use of new instruments
• the establishment of normative data for specific populations on an
assessment tool
• a comparison of multiple assessment tools to one another
• or other research questions
• Numerous professional journals; Assessment, Psychological Assessment,
Journal of Personality Assessment
 Examples
• Can an internet-based, self-administered version of clinical interview
match an in-person interview with a live clinician in terms of diagnosing
ADHD in children?
• Researchers examined a new instrument of this type, the Diagnostic
Interview Schedule for Children-Version 4 (DISC-IV), and found that
indeed, the correspondence between the two types of interviews
(conducted with parents of the child in question) was extremely high.
The researchers acknowledge that further research is necessary, but
this study is promising first step toward establishing a potentially cost-
effective, efficient, and convenient form of assessment.
• Speaking of ADHD, another group of researchers published a study in which
they reported the development and validation of a new ADHD scale for
young adults. Young adults often seek assessment for ADHD-related
symptoms; this instrument is intended to assess these problems in a manner
that fits this population specifically, rather than overextending other
instruments designed primarily to be used with children.
• The MMPI-2 is the most widely used and psychometrically sound objective
personality test, and one of its strengths is its ability to detect ‘faking’ by the
test taker. Hahn (2005) conducted a study to examine whether the scales that
detect faking in North American, English-speaking clients are also effective
in the translation of the MMPI-2 for Korean clients. Results indicated that
the scales that identify ‘fake-good’ and ‘fake-bad’ test takers were equally
adequate in the North American and Korean versions of the test.
 DIAGNOSTIC ISSUES
• Clinical psychologists conduct research to explore issues of diagnosis and
categorization regarding psychological problems.
• Such studies may examine;
• the validity or reliability of existing or proposed diagnostic constructs
• the relationships between disorders
• the prevalence or course of disorders
• or numerous related topics
• Professional journals; Clinical Psychology: Research and Practice, Journal of
Abnormal Psychology, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology
 Examples
• Paranoid personality disorder is a commonly diagnosed personality disorder,
but is paranoid personality best understood as a categorical or a dimensional
characteristic? In other words, is paranoid personality something an
individual ‘has’ or ‘doesn’t have’, or is it something we all have to varying
degrees?
• Edens, Marcus, and Morey (2009) empirically examined this question by
reviewing hundreds of structured interviews and self-report questionnaires
of individuals assessed for personality disorder characteristics. Their
primary finding was that paranoid personality has a dimensional, rather
than categorical, underlying structure. Research of this type can have an
influence on the way psychological disorders are defined in future editions
of the DSM.
• Personality disorders are often assumed to be stable over time.
Researchers recently tested this assumption by assessing
personality disorder characteristics in the same client five times
over a 10-year period. According to this longitudinal study, stability
of personality disorder traits was not as strong as often assumed
and was comparable with some Axis-I disorders such as anxiety
disorders.
 PROFESSIONAL ISSUES
• Clinical psychologists also examine elements of their own profession
through empirical research.
• They study clinical psychologists’ activities, beliefs, and practices, among
other aspects of their professional lives.
• Professional journals:
• Professional Psychology: Research & Practice
• Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training
• Journal of Clinical Psychology
 Examples
• Do the ethical dilemmas and problems psychologists encounter depend on
whether they work in rural or urban communities?
• Helbok, Marinelli, and Walls (2006) conducted a survey to explore this
question and discovered some significant differences. Among other
findings, results suggested that small-town/rural psychologists were
more likely than their urban counterparts to encounter multiple
relationships with clients, and small-town/rural psychologists were also
less likely to have access to professional resources such as medication
prescribers and specialized services.
• What attitudes do contemporary psychologists hold toward gay, lesbian,
and bisexual lifestyles?
• Kilgore, Sideman, Amin, Baca, and Bohanske (2005) examined this
question via a survey of psychologists. They found that compared to
similar studies in the past, psychologists are more likely to view such
lifestyles as acceptable and non-pathological. They also found that
compared to male psychologists, female psychologists held more
positive beliefs about gay, lesbian, and bisexual lifestyles and gay-
affirmative therapy.
 TEACHING AND TRAINING ISSUES
• Clinical psychologists also pursue research questions related to how to
educate those entering the profession.
• Training philosophies, specific coursework, opportunities for specialized
training, and the outcome of particular training efforts all represent
areas of study.
• Professional journals:
• Training and Education in Professional Psychology
• Teaching of Psychology
• Journal of Clinical Psychology
 Examples
• When training graduate students in assessment, teaching them to write effective
reports can be particularly challenging, with a variety of different styles of report
writing available for the instructor to emphasize. Pelco, Ward, Coleman, and
Young (2009) conducted an interesting study in which sample reports of various
types were provided to elementary school teachers (who often receive such
reports about their students), and the teachers were asked to compare the
effectiveness of the reports. Results indicated that teachers preferred a report in
which the results of different psychological tests were organized by theme, rather
than one in which the results were reported test-by-test. They also gave higher
ratings to the most “readable” report, as opposed to reports with higher-level
professional terminology. Results of studies like this can guide graduate
programs in providing instruction regarding psychological report writing for
particular audiences.
• To what extent do graduate programs in clinical psychology train
students to manage potentially violent clients? Researchers
examined this question by surveying graduate students regarding
their exposure to violent clients and the training they had received
in dealing with them (Gately & Stabb, 2005). Results indicated that
in general, graduate students encountered violent clients
infrequently and that they felt their training to handle such clients
was lacking. The researchers noted a correlation between trainees’
perception of training to manage violent clients and their
confidence level in handling such situations.
RESEARCH
METHODS
 RESEARCH METHODS
• Quantitative and Qualitative Research
• Case Studies
• Experiments or True (Controlled) Experiments
• Quasi-Experiments
• Correlational Studies
• Surveys
• Naturalistic Observation
• Longitudinal Studies
• Neuropsychological Methods
 QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH
• Researchers seek the emergence of theoretically interesting categories and
hypotheses.

• It is acquired from the data using quantitative or qualitative methods or

both.
• Interviews, naturalistic observations, etc. are some of the qualitative
research methods.

• Through these methods symbols, subjective experiences, or social

structures are interpreted.

• Whereas, quantitative research includes experiments, quasi (semi-

natural) experiments, cross-sectional studies, etc.
 Case Studies
• This provides an in-depth analysis (study) of a person, group, or
phenomenon.
• Long interviews, direct observation, psychometric (reliability and
validity) tests, etc. are used for these studies.
• In a case study, nearly every aspect of the participant’s life history is
analyzed to seek patterns and causes for behavior (holistic point of view).
• Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective and it is difficult
to generalize results to a larger population.
 Case Study
Advantages
• Provides detailed (rich
qualitative) information.
• Provides insight for further
research.
• Shows how different aspects of
a person's life are related to
each other, holistic point of
view.
Disadvantages
• Cannot generalize results to
the wider population.
• Researchers own subjective
feelings may influence the case
study (Researcher Bias).
• Difficult to replicate.
• Time consuming.
Experiments or True (Controlled) Experiments
• Used in clinical psychology.
• Scientific methods are applied to understand human behavior.
• It is to test certain hypothesis or evaluate functional relationships.
• Causal relationship between different aspects of behavior and the
environment is established.
• We conduct experiments to identify cause-and-effect relationships;
• Directly vary a condition you think might affect behavior
• Create two or more groups of participants, alike in all ways except the condition
you are varying
• Record whether varying the condition has any effect on behavior.
 (Lab) Experiments
Advantages
• It enables us to study cause and effect
because it involves the deliberate
manipulation of one variable, while
trying to keep all other variables
constant.
• The independent variable (IV) is thought
of as the cause and the dependent
variable (DV) as the effect.
• Experiments can be replicated because of
standardized procedures and measures
which allows it to be easily repeated.
• It has quantitative data which can be
analyzed using inferential statistical tests.
Disadvantages
• Artificiality: The experiment is not
typical of real-life situations.
• Behavior in the laboratory is very
narrow in its range. By controlling
the situation so precisely, behavior
may be very limited.
• A major difficulty with the
experimental method is Demand
Characteristics i.e. all the cues which
convey to the participant the purpose
of experiment.
 Quasi-Experiments
• Research in clinical psychology often involves variables that the researcher is not
entirely able to control.
• Ethical, practical, or other constraints often limit the researcher’s ability to
randomly assign people to certain conditions, make particular manipulations, or
otherwise experimentally test certain hypotheses. In such cases, clinical
psychologists may use a quasi-experimental design rather than a true experimental
design.
• Quasi-experimental designs are less scientifically sound nonetheless, they are
frequently used in clinical psychology and have often yielded very meaningful and
important results.
• Example: consider a group of clinical psychology researchers who are interested in
examining the outcome of a particular therapy for specific phobias.
 Correlational Studies
• Correlation means association.
• Studies designed to measure the degree of a relationship (if any) between
two or more events, measures, or variables.
• Positive correlation – an increase in one variable tends to be associated with
an increase in the other. An example would be height and weight. Taller
people tend to be heavier.
• Negative correlation – an increase in one variable tends to be associated
with a decrease in the other. An example would be height above sea level
and temperature. As you climb the mountain (increase in height) it gets
colder (decrease in temperature).
• When there is no relationship between two variables this is known as a
zero correlation. For example there is no relationship between the
amount of tea drunk and level of intelligence.
• A hypothetical example: “IQ is negatively correlated with delinquency”
• Think of some ways this relationship could work. In other words, why
or how might lower IQ be related to delinquency? What are other
possibilities?
 Correlation Studies
Advantages Disadvantages
• Can collect much information • Problems with self-report
from many participants at a method.
time. • Cannot draw conclusions
• Can study a wide range of about causality.
variables and their
interrelations.
• Can study variables that are
not easily produced in the
laboratory.
 Surveys
• Surveys could be done by paper-pencil method, by phone, by email, on
internet, etc.
• Survey questionnaires are used to measure attitudes and traits
(individuality), it also monitors the changes in mood and attitudes.
 Naturalistic Observation
• Observing a behavior as it occurs in its natural setting.
• Can be overt or covert
• Looking at a behavior as it occurs in its natural setting with no attempts
at intervention on the part of the researcher.
• For example, you want to study differences in risk taking behavior
between teenage boys and girls.
 Overt Observation
• Overt observations refer to the researcher being open about their intentions in
the field and ensuring all members of the social group are aware of what is
happening.
• An advantage of this type of observation is that it allows the researcher to be
honest with the participants, thus avoiding problematic ethical issues such as
deception or lack of informed consent. Therefore, aiming to keep the
observation objective and free from bias.
• However, a disadvantage would be that the participants understand the aims of
the observer and so there is a possibility of observer effects (the participants
changing their behavior by acting in a way that they believe is expected by the
experimenter).
 Covert Observation
• Covert observations involve the researcher not informing members of the group
the reason for their presence; keeping their true intentions secret. This
automatically raises ethical concerns.
• In this case, the researcher may not be protected, or may not protect others, from
the risk of harm- especially if the social group they are studying are a deviant
group that may partake in violent acts. Also, they will be deceiving the participants
and will lack informed consent.
• An advantage of covert observation is that it allows us to access social groups that
normally would not provide consent to being involved in studies. Therefore,
allowing us to research and expand knowledge on lesser-known social groups,
which in turn will widen our psychological understanding of the world.
• Also, this type of observation avoids problems surrounding observer effects and
thus can be considered to have higher validity than overt observations.
 Naturalistic Observation

Advantages
• It can support the external
validity of research. i.e. results
can be generalized to a larger
population.
• Cost effective.
Disadvantages
• Difficult to determine the exact
cause of a behavior and the
experimenter cannot control
for outside Variables.
 Longitudinal Studies
• A particular individual or a group is observed over a long time.

• It helps discern their development over a period of time.

• It has been a significant way to find out psychological problems and their
evolution.
 Neuro-Psychological Methods
• It involves the study of both healthy individuals and patients typically those
who have suffered from brain injury or mental health.
• Cognitive Neuropsychology and Cognitive Neuropsychiatry study
neurological or mental impairment in an attempt to infer theories of
normal mind and brain function.
• This technique is also used to study the neuropsychology of healthy
individuals.
• These include behavioral experiments, brain scanning or functional
neuroimaging which is used to examine the activity of the brain during the
task performance.
 VALIDITY ISSUES
• Like other psychological researchers, the clinical researcher also has to
be careful about validity issue.

• If the validity issues are addressed carefully the results could be more
accurate.
 Ethical Issues in
Research in
Clinical Psychology
Thank You