WALLAGA UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTEMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Course Name: Maintenance of Machinery (MEng 5141)

Prepared By: Mrs.Derartu Tekilu

2023/2024 AY
Maintenance of machinery
 Chapter one
Introduction to Maintenance of Machinery

The overall and overarching goal of any company’s establishment is

long time survival and the ability to produce useful outputs and sell to

satisfy demand. In manufacturing companies the outputs are usually

products offered to customers resulting in profits. The primary aim of

any establishment should be to manufacture and sell a product or

number of products in order to satisfy a demand. However, most

establishments usually state their primary objectives as:

 …cont’d
i. Make profit
ii. Maximize profit
iii. Satisfy a social need/ employ labor
iv. Provide useful commodity.

These enumerated objectives should be secondary as if a

company can sufficiently have identified a market and
sufficiently serviced it, all other objectives shall be met
…cont’d
• To achieve the primary objective of satisfying a demand, it is very

important that products are produced in the right quantity, quality, at

the right time and right cost. For these requirements to be met, goods

must be made in the most efficient and economic manner. The

machines and equipment must operate efficiently and effectively at the

required level of production. There must be very few or no stoppages

on production lines which require effective planning, scheduling and

good administration of maintenance activities.

 …cont’d
• Maintenance requirements have an impact on production
scheduling and other functions performed by the production
control department. Time lost due to maintenance may interfere
with schedules from the production department. Therefore,
maintenance requirements should be considered in choosing
machines or equipment for replacement or increasing the
capacity of installed machines and equipment.
• The maintenance department in any organization is saddled
with the responsibility of the maintenance of facilities,
Manufacturing of goods is closely connected with the means
of production. Every means of production is, in closely
connected with wear and tear. A few examples are
mentioned below.
• Tools or dies wear out by friction with work piece
• Machines parts wear out by friction with one another
• Atmospheric conditions destroy machine parts and materials
• Aging affects materials and their behavior
• Improper handling affects equipment and materials
 ....cont’d
• If proper action against these wearing out of equipment
and materials is not taken, there would be breakdown in
the production processes, and materials deteriorate unduly
resulting in loss or, total stoppage of production. Hence,
there is a permanent necessity that all means of production
be

Used
Checked
Serviced
Tended last (estimated life time)
....cont’d
In order to give the full function which they are designed
for the last three necessities constitute what is called
maintenance, whereas the former is operational.
From the engineering point of view, the management of
the means of production has two elements. that are.
First, it must be maintained, and second, from time to
time it may also need to be modified.
Definition of Maintenance

• The term maintenances is derived from the word maintain

which is defined is defined as
Cause to continue or
Keep in an existing state (according to Webster Dictionary)

A means of production is made operational because the user

wants to do something i.e. the user expects the means of
production to fulfill a certain function. Therefore the means of
production has to be preserved in its existing state, or it must
continue to function in its desired state.
....cont’d
Therefore in a non technical terms, maintenance may be
defined as ensuring that a means of production continue to
function to accomplish what the user wants it to do.
A comprehensive definition
Maintenance can be considered as a combination of action carried out in
order to replace, repair, service, modify the components, or some
identifiable group of components of a manufacturing plant so that it will
continue to operate satisfactorily to a specified availability or a specified
time.
....cont’d
In other words, maintenance can also be defined as follows
• Maintenance is the totality of all measures directed towards
control (preservation and restoration) of the performance of a
plant.
Maintenance is an auxiliary process in a production
process directed towards a high effectiveness of the main
process.
 1.2. NEED FOR MAINTENANCE
One of the factors that can ensure availability of installed
facilities for efficient use is an effective and efficient
maintenance engineering system. Gone were the days when
maintenance was not given adequate attention. For any company
with mechanized and automated systems, more attention is now
given to maintenance function. Therefore, the need for
maintenance increases with technological advancement in
production facilities. Other factors which seem to emphasize the
need for effective maintenance system are:
 ...cont’d

(i)Strong competition
(ii)Tight production schedules

(iii)Increased machine utilization (iv) Increased production

level

Inadequate or lack of effective and efficient maintenance

system especially in a manufacturing enterprise gives rise to
several undesirable consequences. These consequences
include:
 …cont’d

(i)Excessive machine breakdown

(ii) Frequent emergency maintenance work
(iii) Shortened life-span of the facility
(iv) Poor use of maintenance staff
(v) Loss in production output
(vi) Inability to meet delivery dates
(vii) Excessive overtime
(viii) Loss of lives
These factors may contribute to high costs of production
and consequently loss in profitability.
1.3. Trends in the Evolution of Maintenance

• According to John Moubray, author of Reliability Center

Maintenance, the evolution of maintenance since the
1930’s can be traced through three generations. The
distinction between these generations depends up on
basically three technical factors:
Growing expectations of maintenance,
Changing view on equipment failures, and
Changing maintenance techniques
 Third Generation
Higher plant availability
Greater safety
Better product quality
No damage to the
Second Generation environment
 Longer equipment life
 Higher plant availability
 Greater cost
First Generation  Longer equipment life
effectiveness
 Fix it when it broke  Lower costs

Growing expectations of maintenance

 Changing view on equipment failures

Third Generation

Second Generation

First Generation

1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

 Changing maintenance techniques

Third Generation
 Condition monitoring
 Design for reliability and
maintainability
 Hazard studies
Second Generation  Small fast computers
- Scheduled overhauls  Failure modes and effects
First Generation - Systems for planning analysis
• Fix it when it and controlling work  Expert systems
- Big, slow computers  Multiskilling and team work
broke
....cont’d
First Generation
This covers the period up to the world war II. During this period:
• Industry was not highly mechanized
• Equipment Was not highly mechanized
• Downtime did not matter much
• Prevention of equipment failure did not have high priority
• Failures were corrected as they occur
As a result, there was not need for systematic maintenance beyond
cleaning, servicing and lubrication.
....cont’d
Second Generation
During the war, demand for good increased and supply of
industrial outputs was low.
This led to increase in mechanization. During this period:
• Machines became numerous and more complex,
• Industry started to depend heavily on these machines
Downtime started to matter,
• The idea the equipment failures could and should be
maintained came up

As a result, the concept of preventive maintenance

and maintenance planning and control systems
grew up.
....cont’d
Third Generation
Since the mid-seventies, new expectations, new research and new
techniques have revolutionized maintenance. During this period:
 Maximizing life of equipment has become important
 Higher plant availability and reliability have become very
important
 Greater automation has been effected
 Quality standards, safety and environmental consequences
matter quite a lot
 Cost of maintenance has become central
 Greater expectations have lead to new research which in turn
are leading to new techniques
 1.4. The Challenges of Maintenance
As can be observed from the trends of the evolution of
maintenance, higher plant reliability and availability, personnel
safety and environmental protection including cost effective
methods are given focal importance activities.
As a result of these demands, maintenance is increasing facing
new challenges. The challenges that modern maintenance
managers face can be summarized as follows:

• To select the most appropriate maintenance techniques

• To deal with each type of failure process appropriately
• In order to fulfill the expectations of users
• In the most cost-effective and sustainable mode
• With active support of people involved
 1.5. Maintenance Management
Maintenance is related to profitability through
equipment output and equipment running cost;
time taken for maintenance purposes

With increasing industrialization and complexity of

machinery, the importance of maintenance increases as
downtime and costs related to downtime become
increasingly prohibitive.
....cont’d
To understand maintenance and its various characteristic features, it is
imperative to know what an equipment life-cycle comprises and the
factors at the various stages as they relate to maintenance. An industrial
equipment is considered as passing through a number of stages, the first
being design and the last one replacement. The level of maintenance
activity required and maintenance management involved at the equipment
operation stage is affected by factors at other stages through which the
equipment passes. These stages are briefly discussed below indicating how
maintenance is affected by the actions undertaken at the respective stages.
....cont’d
Design stage:
• The most important features of maintenance, particularly reliability and maintainability
should be considered properly in relation to performance of equipment, capital and
running costs right at the design stage. Good maintainability and reliability characteristics
are incorporated in the system at this stage.
Installation stage:
• Maintainability is an important factor to be considered during the installation, for it is here
that maintenance problems become clear.
....cont’d
Commissioning stage:
• This is a stage of technical performance testing and also a stage of where
primary design faults are located and designed out. During commissioning,
maintenance effectiveness can be analyzed and changes can be affected in
the system.

Operational stage:
• The operational stage is a stage of continued learning where maintenance
plays an important role. In this stage, mal-operation should be avoided and
maintenance activities are optimized so as to exploit the system reliability
and maintainability characteristics.
....cont’d
....cont’d
During the operation period or useful life of an equipment proper maintenance
management can influence resource utilization and profitability of an industrial
plant. Maintenance management is the direction and organization of resources in
order to control the availability and performance of an industrial plant to a
specified level. Normally, to meet the workload in a timely and cost effective
manner, any maintenance management is faced with a two-dimensional problem
and these are
 Determination of size and nature of the maintenance work load, and
 Organization and control of resources i.e. men, spares and equipment
1.6. Function of maintenance work
The maintenance department influences plant availability
directly through preventive and corrective maintenance tasks.

The most basic definition of availability is expressed by the

equation
Availability =

Where = Cumulative time of operation, up-time

= Cumulative outage time, downtime
Downtime does not consist only of the time taken for repair
but also includes delays due to lack of resources and
information.
Downtime = repair time + delays
....cont’d
• Repair time is affected by management, system or
equipment maintainability as well as engineering
techniques.
Mathematically, this can be stated as
Repair time = f (maintainability, management
method, engineering techniques)
• Delays are influenced by organization of maintenance
resources and flow of information and this can be expressed
as
Delays = f (organization of maintenance resources and
information)
 …cont’d
The objectives of plant maintenance have been enumerated to include the following;

To achieve minimum breakdown and to keep the plant in good working condition
at the lowest possible cost;
To keep the machines and other facilities in operational level, and used act
optimum (profit making) capacity.

To ensure the availability of the machines; buildings and services required
by other section, buildings and services required by other section of the
factory for efficient performance. The most important responsibility of
plant engineering is that of maintaining the plant facilities and equipment.

It is only when the equipment is adequately maintained that it can be

expected to operate and perform properly, and thereby yielding a high
quality product at a reasonable cost.
....cont’d
Plant availability is greatly influenced by reliability and
maintainability. These characteristics are built in at the
design stage and then after affect the maintenance
workload. Causes of low reliability or maintainability can
only be removed by engineering re-design which is not the
responsibility of maintenance department.
…Cont’d
It has been stated below that the maintenance functions
stem at supporting role to keep equipment;
(i)To operate effectively;
(ii)To maintain quality standard at all times;
(iii)To maintain the quantitative and cost standards of
output.
1.7. FUNCTIONS OF MAINTENANCE ENGINEERING

The function of maintenance engineering can be divided into

primary and secondary. The primary functions of
maintenance are:
(i) Maintenance of existing machines and equipment
(ii) Maintenance of existing buildings
(iii) Inspection and lubrication of machine and equipment
(iv) Generation and distribution of utilities e.g. water,
electricity etc.
(v) Installation of new machines and equipment
(vi) Modifications of existing machines, equipment and
buildings.
…Cont’d

The secondary functions include the following:

(i) Sanitation
(ii) Disposal of used items
(iii) Storekeeping
(iv) Fire protection
(v) Janitorial service
....cont’d
1.8. Classification of maintenance
• Depending on the nature of maintenance workload as
related to time, maintenance is broadly classified into two
• Preventive maintenance
• Corrective Maintenance

Preventive maintenance is the technique of minimizing untimely

equipment breakdown and /or an equipment’s condition falling
below a required level of acceptability.
....cont’d
....cont’d
• Preventive maintenance calls for taking
equipment off-line for repair at planned intervals
(time-based) or depending on the equipment
condition (condition-based). Scheduled
maintenance is performed at regular intervals for
the purpose of keeping the system in a condition
consistent with built-in levels of reliability,
performance and safety.
....cont’d
• The basic reasons for undertaking preventive
maintenance are the following.
Increased automation
Loss of profitability due to production delays
Just-in-time manufacturing policy
Production requirement for higher quality
Reduction in equipment redundancies
Reduced cost of maintenance
....cont’d
• The last item, reduction in maintenance cost is achieved in
many different ways:
Reduced production downtime resulting in fewer machine
breakdown
Better prevention of equipment and increased useful life
expectancy which eliminates premature replacement of
equipment/machinery
Efficient use of maintenance labor achieved by working on of
schedule basis instead of crash basis repair breakdown
Timely routine repairs resulting in fewer large scale repairs, etc
....cont’d
• Care: regular care of normally operating subsystems and
components requires such activities filling like
cleaning, lubrication etc.

• Servicing: Servicing of subsystems and components

includes care along with other activities such as, filling in
of oil and fuel, readjustment, re-setting, adjusting,
checking without instruments.
....cont’d
• Inspection: Inspection of subsystems and components
comprises servicing together with checking, testing,
measuring, examining. The activities carried out during
inspection are Checking of function (comparison with
required data), and Gauging (use of measuring
instruments).
• Repair: repair activities include replacement of damaged
and destroyed parts or those nearing wear-out, and
reconditioning of components. Repair actions normally
require disassembling and assembling of components.
 ....cont’d

• The frequency of performing regular care, inspection and servicing to

prevent degradation of reliability depends on the characteristics of
the components.
• Repair/replacement of components should be done by highly
qualified maintenance personnel to avoid maintenance-induced
problems.
Corrective Maintenance
• Corrective maintenance is defined as that which is carried
out when equipment fails or falls below acceptable
condition while in operation. Basically, corrective
maintenance is an emergency maintenance which is carried
out after breakdown, thus it is a shutdown activity.
• off-schedule maintenance required by system in-service failure or
malfunction.
 1.9. Maintenance objectives, planning control

• The proper maintenance objective is the minimization of

the sum of plant unavailability and resource costs through
the proper planning and control of maintenance work. A
unit is considered to be in one of the following states:
• In production -------------------------------------- available
• Undergoing repairs----------------------------- unavailable
• Waiting for repair ------------ ----------------- unavailable
• Undergoing preventive maintenance ------ unavailable
....cont’d
• Maintenance objective is minimization of the resources and
unavailability costs.

Unavailability cost = loss of in-service material and

production loss while in repair
Or undergoing preventive maintenance
Resource cost = corrective maintenance labour, preventive
maintenance labour,
Maintenance equipment spares usage and holding costs
....cont’d
An established maintenance organization and planning, needs
to set-up a control system to ensure that the organization is
continually updated. This control system performs three main
interrelate functions: work control, plant condition control
and maintenance cost control. These three functions are
interrelated in that they are targeted at minimizing
maintenance costs.
....cont’d
Work control
This is a function of the maintenance organization and its object
is to match men, spares and equipment to the maintenance
workload. The function includes
• Location of plant failure
• Determination of the necessary corrective action
• The setting of priorities
• Coordination and control of resources
 Plant condition control
This function is the required in order to achieve optimum plant
performance in the long term. The function of plant condition
control is to:
• Identify the most important problems
• Diagnose causes
• Prescribe solutions
• In achieving this function the alternative actions available
are:
• Modification of preventive maintenance policy
• Equipment re-design (especially, in the early period of an
equipment life)
• Changes in production policy
 Maintenance cost control
• The objective of maintenance control, as the name implies, is to
minimize the sum of costs related to maintenance activities.
The functions of maintenance cost control is:
• To identify high cost areas of plant
• To monitor the trend of maintenance effectiveness
• To provide information for maintenance decision making
• To facilitate maintenance budgeting
Chapter two
2. Fundamental Theory of Damages

• Damages are causes for the loss of function ability or

workability of a means of production, if proper action is
not taken against them.
• Even with optimum design and operation conditions
damages are unavoidable. Thus damages are the
reasons for the existence of a maintenance
organization.
2.1. Classification of Damages:
• The use-value of equipment or a means of production is
affected by two processes. These are technological
processes and technical and economical processes.
2.2. Reasons of damage
• Damage is influenced by environmental conditions and
conditions of use of equipment. For proper maintenance
work, it is necessary to make systematic analysis of damages
which includes discussions on reasons for damages and their
consequences. The conclusions obtained are feedback to
designers, manufactures and operational maintenance
personnel.
.....cont’d
Reasons for damages can basically be classified as follow:
Objective: Those are damages caused by operational
processes and environmental causes. These damages are
unavoidable.
Subjective: These are caused by failure in design,
manufacturing, use operation and maintenance. If an
equipment or a means of production is handled
appropriately, subjective damages can be avoided.
2.3. Typical Damages of Equipment
The changes of state or damages, as are commonly known,
that result from technological processes are basically
classified into three.
These are; corrosion, wear and tear, and fatigue.

1.3.1 Corrosion
Corrosion is the destruction or deterioration of
materials by chemical or electrochemical reaction with the
environment. This includes the destruction of metals in all
types of atmospheres and liquids, and at any
temperature.
....cont’d
• Corrosion reduces the useful life of and equipment. And
about 5% of yearly production of steel is destroyed by
corrosion.
• Under most ordinary conditions of exposure, corrosion
products consist mainly of oxides, carbonates and sulphids.
 The processes of corrosion
• The process of corrosion takes place due to direct chemical
action when the metal eners into a chemical reaction with
other elements to form non-metallic compound or due to
electrochemical action. Metallic elements when placed in
contact with water or a solution have definite inherent
tendencies to go in to the solution in the form of electrically
charged particles. In general, the metal and particularly iron
which enters a solution is thrown down as rust.
.....cont’d

Surface corrosion
.....cont’d

Pitting corrosion
Kinds of corrosion
Corrosion is classified by the forms in which it manifests itself,
the basis for this classification being the appearance of the
corroded metal, which can be identified by visual observation
i. Surface corrosion
ii. Pitting corrosion
iii. Inter-crystalline corrosion (around the grain)
iv. Trans-crystalline corrosion (across the grain)
v. Galvanic corrosion (two metal corrosion)
 Common locations of corrosion

• Common locations where problems of corrosion can be found are the

following:
• Along the water-line in partially filled tanks
• In and around drops of water on steel surfaces
• Along crack lines
• Along joints, particularly in dissimilar metals
• Along cold-worked areas like bending, sharp ends, etc
Methods of minimizing corrosion
• From the point of view of maintenance, damages caused by corrosion
have to be dealt with priventively. Some of the methods of minimizing
of corrosion are the following
• Use of protective metals such as zinc, tin, lead, etc
• Application of protective paints
• Rendering the surface of the metal passive (immersing in nitric acid after it
has been highly poised immersing in fuming sulphuric acid)
Corrosion problems
• Corresion problems are pronounced, to a varying degree, in
• Steam generating plants
• Equipments in chemical plants
• Pipes and pipings and
• Sturctures
2.3.2. Wear
• Wear is an undesired change of surface of machine
components by the removal of little particles caused by
mechanical reasons and/or tribochemical reasons. (tribology
is the science of interacting surfaces in relative motion)
Mostly wear is caused by friction of two mating parts
Thuse
- There must be a pair of contacting wear partners ( a basic
body and a mating body)
- A normal force must act maintaining contact between the
two bodies
- There must exist a relative motion b/n the two surfaces
- Wear accelerator or retarding materials
Wear
Kinds of wear
The whole field of wear which is diverse is divided in two
limited area with similar condition
i. Depending of the relative motion of mating parts
a. Kinematic wear
 Sliding
 Rolling
 Drilling
 Mixed
b. static wear
c. Impact
......Cont’d
ii. Depending on the time behaviour of wear there are
two kinds of wear
a. Stationary wear – in which the wear intensity remains
constant
b. Non-stationary wear – in which the wear intnesity
depends on time
Wear processes
The wear process is a complex one being dependent on a
number of factors : load, velocity, intermediate
materials, ambient condition, etc
Wear processes are accompanied by heating in the
micro-range as well as changes in the physical and
chemical material properties of the wear partners.
Wear processes can be differentiated as
i. Shearing process
roughness points will be sheared off if the acting forces
are greater than the shear strength. This leads to the
reduction of roughness and increased percentage of contact
area which reduces energy concentration and wear velocity.
ii. Elastic deformation
big surface roughness results in low percentage of
contact area and high energy concentration in contact point.
This may result in high local stresses in the elastic range this
causes small flattening or bending of roughness points.
Repetition of this process will cause local fatigue of material.
 ....cont’d

iii. Plastic deformation

If local stress produced exceeds the elastic limit, plastic
deformation takes place in flattening and bending the material with no
loss in mass.
Wear types

Depending on the presence of lubricants and/or lack

of it, wear types are classified into the following.
i. Wear by solid friction
Solid friction occurs between the contacting
surfaces of two bodies having relative motion
where there is no intermediate material.
ii. Wear by liquid friction
In the case of liquid friction the two mating
bodies are completely separated from each other
by an intermediate material, mostly a lubricant.
....cont’d
iii. Wear by mixed friction
Simultaneous action of solid and liquid friction,
caused by high roughness or high load for the lubricating
film causes wear by mixed friction.

Schematically these wear types are shown.

Types of wear
Time- behavior of wear
Amount of wear depends on time according to the
equation

where a is exponent of wear behavior,

is amount of wear,
is wear velocity, and
is the initial wear.
....cont’d
• Depending on a, assuming the initial wear = 0, the wear
behavior with time can be increasing, decreasing or
constant. These three wear behaviors with time are shown
in the figure below.
Protection against wear:
• The main protection measure against wear is lubricating of
the moving parts. A lubricant is the intermediate material
between two parts with relative motion for the purpose of
reducing friction and/or wear between them. Proper
lubrication with timely addition/replacement of lubricant
plays a vital role in maintaining machine accuracy and
increasing its working life.
Classification of lubricants

Lubricants are in the form of lubricating oils, grease and solid

lubricants. The use of each one of these depends on purpose
and operational desirability.
i. Lubricating oils
Lubricating oils are of two types: mineral and
synthetic oils. In addition to preventing of or minimizing
wear, lubricating oils perform the following duties:
• Cooling by reducing friction and removing excess heat generated
• Protection by inhibiting corrosive processes caused by air and
water
• Cleaning by flushing dirt particles away from lubricated surfaces
.....cont’d
a, Mineral oil:
Minerals oils are basically hydrocarbons often with some
additives to introduce specific characteristic features in the
oil. Mineral oils are classified as:
• Paraffinic: which contain significant amounts of waxy
hydrocarbons with little or no asphaltic matter;
• Naphthenic: which contain asphaltic matter in lensivenls fraction,
with little or no wax;
• Mixed base: which contain asphaltic materials
.....Cont’d
The most important physical property of mineral oils is
viscosity which is a measure of resistance to flow.
Other important lubricant properties are the following
• Anti-wear and EP (extreme pressure) properties
• Oxidation resistance
• Ant-corrosion properties
• Anti-foaming property; and
• Demulsibility (ability to separate from water)
....cont’d
Contamination is probably the most common reason for
changing oil. Contaminants can be one of the following or a
mixture
• Gaseous, like air, ammonia, etc.,
• Liquid, like water, oil of another type or viscosity or both
• Solid, like fuel soot, road dust, wear products
The main types of additives and their functions are given
below.
• Acid neutralizers: neutralize contamination acids formed by
combustion decomposition, etc.
• Anti-foam: reduces surface foam
• Viscosity index improvers: reduce the decrease in viscosity due to
increase in temperature.
• Pour point depressants: lower lubricant freezing temperatures.
 b, Synthetic oils
Synthetic oils are products produced under controlled
conditions industrially from chemical base and additives.
These are pure, idealized lubricants whose molecules are
uniform in weight and shape. Synthetic oils are engineered to
perform under rigorous conditions and extreme temperature.
The most important properties of synthetic oils are the
following:
• Added lubricity:
• Higher film strength
• Good engine start-up properties
• Good resistance to thinning:
.....cont’d
• Improves energy efficiency
• Less sludge or deposit formation
• Good thermal properties:

• Because of their properties, synthetic oils are used for high speed
lubrication under extreme loading conditions.
...cont’d
Because of their properties, synthetic oils are used for high speed
lubrication under extreme loading conditions.
However, synthetic oils have some disadvantages and these are:
• Compativity problem with paints, elastomers and certain metals;
• Reactive in the presence of water resulting in hydrolysis and
corrosion;
• High potential for toxicity;
• Disposal problem due to un-degradable molecular structure;
• More expensive;
ii. Greases
Grease may be defined as solid to semi-fluid lubricant
consisting of a dispersion of a thickening agent in a
lubricating fluid. The consistency of grease depends on the
percentage of thickener in the grease. Depending on the
degree of consistency, greases are classified as:
• Semi-fluid
• Soft
• Stiff
.....Cont’d
In selecting grease for use, considerations must be given to
conditions and nature of use. The first thing to be decided is
the consistency range. Next comes the operating
temperature. Use of greases is limited to very low speeds up
to 2 m/s.
They find good use where sealing against dirt is sought or for
intermittent low speed motions.
iii. Solid lubricants:
• A solid lubricant is defined as any solid used as powder or a
thin film on a surface to provide protection from damage
during relative motion so as to reduce friction and wear.
Solid lubricants are used when fluid lubricants. i.e. oils and
greases, are undesirable or ineffective.
• Fluid lubricants are undesirable if they are liable to
contaminate product as in food machinery, electrical
contacts, etc. fluid lubricants are ineffective in hostile
environments, high temperatures, extreme pressures and
fretting conditions. A common type of solid lubricant is
graphite.
.....Cont’d
• The following are some properties of solid lubricants.

• Solid lubricants are incapable of carrying away heat.

• Solid lubricants are immobile and they must somehow be
bonded to the surface.
• Solid lubricants are capable of retaining their lubricating
effectiveness at high temperatures.
2.3.3. Fatigue
• Fatigue is the failure (or reduction in strength) of a material
under fluctuating stresses, which are repeated a very large
number of times. Fatigue failure begins with a hair-line crack
which develops at a point of discontinuity in the material
(notches, groves, fillets,…). Once a small crack develops, it
propagates under load to cause failure.
• Components subjected to fluctuating forces must be
designed for fatigue conditions. Surface conditions, residual
stresses due to metal working processes or metal – treating
processes, stress concentration affect strength very much.
Hence, they should be considered properly at design stage.
• Fatigue strength (the endurance limit) of materials is greatly
decreased by the presence of a corroding medium.
 Chapter three
Typical Damages of machine parts
3.1. Sliding bearings
The damage in sliding bearings is wear plus fatigue
• Static loads cause wear whereas dynamic loads cause wear
plus fatigue.
• In cases where lubricant contains corrosion- stimulating
substances like acids produced by aging lubricant, water
leaking in lubricant, etc. , corrosion also becomes an
important damage.
....cont’d
But when dealing with damages of the system, the
whole system has to be considered especially with
respect to
• Alignment and shape of bush hole or bore,
• Lubricating, and
• Deformation of shaft under applied loads.
...cont’d
The process of wear depends on the wear velocity and
operation conditions, particularly, temperature.
• High temperature and high wear velocity produce
overheating which change the properties of the material.
• Presence of foreign substances in the lub. causes increased
wear velocity
Example
Bearing failure Characteristics Causes
Scoring or  Bearing surface is eroded in the direction of  Excessively contaminated lubricant by non-metallic
erosion motion dirt exceeding the minimum oil film thickness- which
roll between surfaces

Wiping  Bearing surface melts, especially, for materials  Inadequate clearance

with low-melting point  Insufficient supply of lubricant
 Overheating
 Excessive load
 Distorted bore
Fatigue  Random cracks on bearing surface  Excessive dynamic loading causing reduction in
 Loss of area of lining strength
 Overheating
 High speeds causing excessive centrifugal forces

Fretting  Welding or metal pick-up from the bearing
housing
 Vibration from external sources causing
damage while journal is stationary
Corrosion  Formation of hard deposit on surface of
white-metal lining
 Deep pitting and attack on copper-base alloys 
 Black coloration due to formation of copper
sulphide
 Inadequate interference fit
 Improper housing design
 Small sliding movements under operating conditions
 Formation of organic acids by oxidation of lubricant
 Electrolyte in oil
Attack by sulphur compounds from oil additivse or
fuel combustion products
Bush bearing assembly
• When bush bearing are installed at both ends thrust bearings or
collars should be provided to take up the axial load.
• The bush outside diameter must be locked in housing either by a
locking pin or locking set screws.
• For proper lubrication of the bush bearing, lubricating grooves
must be cut on the bush surface and connected with the
lubricating hole.
• Proper fits and tolerances should be provided (basic hole/basic
shaft systems).
 3.2. Antifriction Bearings
Roller and ball bearings
• Ball and roller bearings normally fail by fatigue.
• In the case of tightening and lubrication problems, wear
also can occur.
• Rarely failure can occur by random damages like overload
High contact pressure causes damage of inner and outer
races.
In case of over load and assembly problems failure takes
place in a short time.
....cont’d
Wear of bearing elements increases axial and radial play,
which can be a cause for vibration leading to increased
fatigue.

Analysis of damage
Due to damages bearings will either get heated up or will run
with abnormal noise and or vibration.
• Heating can be felt by touching with hand.
Antifriction bearing defects can be any one or
combination of the following
• Bearing inner race loose on shaft
• Housing bore loose on shaft
• Bearing running dry
• Mis-alignment

Avoid it!!!
. Using sleave
. By undergoing nurling
. Welding
. Chromium plating
Examples

Caused due to
miss alignment

Thrust bearing
 Characteristics of damages in a AF bearings
Damage characteristics Reasons for damage

1. Running out of roundness Damage at the rings (pitting, rippling)

Contamination
Too much bearing clearance

2. Uncommon running noise Too small bearing clearance

2.1. howling, whistling

2.2. Unequal noise: rattling, scrabbling Too big bearing clearance

Damage on racing tracks (pitting, toughening, impressions)
Contamination
Too viscous lubricant

2.3. gradual change of noise Changing of effective bearing clearance (caused by change in temperature
Fast fatigue process
Fast arising of impressions

3. High temperature Too small bearing clearance

3.1. Overheating Insufficient lubricant
Excessive lubricant

3.2.Sudden increase in temperature Lack of lubricant

Fast arising of pitting
 …..cont’d
Bearing failure Characteristics Cause
Fatigue flake Flaking with ripple pattern Fatigue due to repeated
across the loaded part of the stressing
race

Atmospheric Numerous irregular pits with Exposure to moist conditions

corrosion irregular bottom Insufficient grease protection
Reddish brown of dark brown
in colour

Outer race Outer race fretting A patchy discoloration Insufficient interference

fretting
of the outer surface between race and
Presence of reddish housing
brown debris Thin outer race
Cracks extending
inward from the fretted
zone
Inner race Inner race fretting Heavy fretting of shaft Too little interference or
fretting
Inner race may show slight clearance between
some fretting marks inner race and shaft
 …..cont’d
Skew running marks Skew running marks Running marks on Misalignment
stationary race

Uneven fatigue Uneven fatigue Normal fatigue flaking Misalignment

limited to one side

Roller-end collapse Roller-end collapse Flaking near the roller Misalignment

and radius

Roller-end chipping Roller-end chipping Collapse of material Manufacturing problem

near corner radii of accelerated by
roller misalignment
 …..cont’d
Roller peeling Roller peeling Patches of the Heavy fatigue loading
surface of the roller
removed
Magnetic Magnetic damage Softening of running Magnetic field
damage
track and rolling
elements
Overheating Overheating Blackened bearing Overheating
parts blackened
bearing parts
blackened lubricant
Smearing Smearing Discoloration of Heavy loads
bearing surfaces Poor lubrication
Abrasive wear Abrasive wear Dull working surfaces Presence of abrasive
particles in lubricant
Presence of hard wear
particles

Molten cage Molten cage Lubricant failure on

high speed bearings
Preventing the damage using lubricant
Bearings may be lubricated with grease or with oil
depending on working temperature, Speed, load,
bearing design and housing design. The general
guidelines for use of lubrication in bearings are
outlined below:
 Grease is used for Low temperature up to
1200C,
 Lower speed factors up to 300,000 [,
 Low to moderate loads
 Radial ball and roller bearings, and
 Relatively simpler housing design
......cont’d
Oils are used
 For bearing temperature up to 1200C,
 With higher speed factors up to 500, 000 [,
 For all types of bearing designs, and
 Complex housing design.

When grease is applied, bearings are packed with grease.

Generally, the grease should not fill more than three-quarters
of the total available free space in the cover.

When oils are applied to lubricate bearings, bath or splash

system may be used for low speeds; pressure calculating and
oil mist systems are used for high speeds.
3.3 Gear Damages
A gear pair has not failed until it can no longer be run. This
condition is reached when any one or both of the following
has occurred

One or more teeth have broken away preventing transmission;

Teeth are so badly damaged or worn-out that unacceptable
vibration and noise are set up when the gear runs
Typical failures of gear
Gear failure Characteristics Causes Remedies

1. Surface fatigue (pitting)

a. Progressive Pits continue to form with Over-stressing of gear Remove cause

pitting persistent running material of overload
Rapid increase may large pieces of (e.g. correct
teeth breaking away alignment)
Continuous line of pitting reduces
bending resistance in the affected
tooth

b. Deddendum Dedendum covered by a large Possibly vibration in the Use of more

attrition number of small pits (with mat gear unit viscous
appearance) formation of a step at lubricant
the pitch after a continued running
...cont’d
2. Scuffing
a. Light Tooth surfaces appear dull and Disruption of the lubricant Use of high grade
scuffing slightly rough in comparison film with the gear tooth oils with higher
with un-affected areas surfaces temperature temperature
Wear in the direction of sliding reaching critical
at the tip and root of the temperature of lubricating
engaging teeth oil
b. Heavy Tooth surfaces severely Use of low viscous oils Avoid repeated
scuffing roughened as a result of light scuffing
unchecked adhesive wear
Shortage of lubricant

3. Abrasive wear
a. Foreign Grooves are cut in the tooth Dirt falling in an open gear Use clean lubricant
matter in flanks in the direction of the Inadequate initial gear Prevent dirt from
oil sliding cleaning entering system
Dislodged scale in oil periodic flushing of
supply pipes gear unit
Examples
Repair of transmission gears

I. Un-uniform tooth wear on one side

-Turn over by by 1800 so that the other face would
be the working face.
II. Broken teeth
-weld using teplete
III. Cracked/damaged rim or bore of gear wheel
- replace or weld the rim
3.4 Damages of friction surfaces

Friction surfaces of clutches and brakes usually fail by wear

and/or deformation

Typica clutch typical brake

Brake damages
Brake metal surface failures, their characteristics and causes
Failure Characteristics Causes
1. Heat spotting  Heat spotted areas with  Distortion causing heavily loaded
reddish brown colour contact on a small area
 Uncomfortable mating

2. Crazing  Randomly oriented cracks on  Overheating

the rubbing surface of mating  Repeated stress cycling from
component comp. to tension (heating and
cooling)

3. Scoring  Scratches of the rubbing path  Too soft metal for the friction
in the line of movement material
 Abrasive material embedded in
the lining material
....cont’d
Brake friction lining failures their characteristics and causes
Failure Characteristics Causes
1. Fade  Material degrades or flows at  Over heating caused by
the friction surface resulting in excessive braking or brake
decreased and loss in dragging
performance

2. Metal  Metal plucked from the mating  Unsuitable combination of

pickup member and embedded in the materials
lining

3. Grab  Linings contact at ends only  Incorrect radiating of lining

 Noisy brake (fault in assembly)
 Erratic performace
Clutch damages
Clutch failures, their characteristics and causes
Failure Characteristics Causes

1. Buckling  Clutch plates become buckled into a  Lack of comformability (inner areas
wavy pattern hotter than outer area causing
 Preferential heating occurs shrinkage)
 Thermal damage and failure

2. Material  Friction material adhering to opposing  Overheating

transfer plate giving rise to excessive wear  Unsuitable friction material

3. Bond  Material parting at the bond to the core  Poor bonding

failure diate causing loss in performance  Overheating, the high temp affecting
bonding agent

4. Grooving  Grooving of the facing material on the  Material transfer to apposite plate
line of movement
3.5. Shaft failures
• shafts are subjected to various loading condition and
experience tension, compression, bending or any
combination of these loading conditions
• These loads can be stationary or may vary with time
• The basic causes of shaft failures are wear, fatigue and
misalignment
Shaft failures due to wear
• Wear is a common cause of shaft failures. The wear process
takes place by abrasive wear mechanism which is followed
by removal of material from the surface of the shaft.
• Abrasive wear reduces shaft size and destroys shape of the
shaft and causes shaft failure
Fatigue failure

• One of the more common causes of shaft failure is fatigue.

Fatigue failures commonly initiate at stress raisers. The
mechanism of fatigue requires the simultaneous presence
of three things:
• There must be cyclic stresses on the shaft;
• These stress must be tensile in nature, and
• There must be plastic strain
Examples
....cont’d
• The process of fatigue is considered to consist of three
stages:
• Initial fatigue damage involving plastic strains leading to crack
initiation;
• Crack propagation that continues to grow across the part until
the remaining cross section of shaft becomes too weak to carry
the imposed loads: and
• Final and sudden fracture of the remaining cross section, due to
overload
...cont’d
Some typical shaft features that act as stress raises are
• Corners, fillets, notches, etc
• Key-ways, grooves, splines, etc
• Press or shrink fits
• Welding defects,
• Metallurgical defects introduced by metal working such as forging,
machining, heat treating, etc

Others service-related factors that are important factors in fatigue

initiation are damages caused by corrosion and wear
Shaft failures due to misalignment
• Another common cause of shaft failures is misalignment.
Misalignment can be introduced due to following
problems;
• Mismatching of mating parts,
• Original assembly error of equipment,
• Any maintenance activity resulting in maintenance-induced
alignment problems,
• Deflection or deformation of supporting components,
• Deflection or deformation of the shaft itself.
.....cont’d
Remedies of shaft failures
• Some of the remedies for preventing shaft failures are the
following
• by using proper lubrication
• Misalignment can be eliminated by proper assembly procedures
• Fatigue can be reduced by proper design of local areas known as
stress raisers
• Avoiding sharp surfaces during machining as much as possible
eliminates the formation of stress raisers
• Use of proper fits and tolerances reduces fretting problems and
misalignment, wear and fatigue
3.6. Seals
• Basic seal types and their characteristics
• Dynamic seals
• between surfaces in sliding contact or narrowly separated surfaces.
• Static seals
• between surfaces which do not move relative to each other
• Exclusive seels
• restrict access of dirt, etc, to a system, often used in conjunction with
dynamic seals
Rubber seals
Symptoms Cause Remedy
- rubber brittle - rubber aging - renew seal
- possibly cracked - exposure to the sunlight - change rubber compound
- seal leaks - overheat due to high fluid - improve seal environmental or
temperature or high speed operating conditions

- rubber softened, possibly - rubber incompatible with sealed - change rubber compound or
swollen fluid change fluid

seal motion irregular -stick-slip phenomena - higher or lower speed may avoid
- jerky problem
- vibration - Change fluid temperature
- change rubber

- seal friction very high on - static friction (time dependent) - probably inevitable
starting - effect slowed by softer rubber
or more viscous fluid

- seal permanently - permanent set (characteristic of -change rubber compound

deformed rubbers)
O-rings, rectangular rubber rings, U-rings
Symptoms Cause Remedy

- Fine circumferential cut - Extrusion damage - Reduce back clearance

set back slightly from - Check concentricity of parts
sliding contact zone - Fitting of back-up ring
- Ring completely ejected - Use reinforced seal
from its groove - Use harder rubber

- Wear (not restricted to - Ring rolling or - Replace o-ring by rectangular

sliding contact) twisting in groove section ring or lobed type
- Partial or total fracture ring
Example
......cont’d
Lip seals
Symptoms Cause Remedy

Rotating lip seal - Damaged lip (during - Remove cause of damage during
- Excessive leakage assembly) assembly

- Lip cracked in places - Excessive speed - Improve lubrication

- Poor lubrication - Reduce environmental
- Hot environment temperature
- Consider using alternative rubber
compound

Reciprocating lip seal - Poor lubrication - Replace single seal

- Excessive wear/high - Seal overloaded - Use heavy duty seal
friction - For aqueous fluids leather may be
better than rubber