GROUNDED THEORY

By:
Jannat Nadeem, Fatima Saleem, Bisma Malik
INTRODUCTION:
• Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss- two sociologists who
originally developed grounded theory.
• They wanted researchers to have a method in which they could
move from data to theory so that new theories could emerge.
• These new theories would be “grounded” in the data from
which they had emerged rather than relying on data from the
pre-existing theories.
• Grounded theory was made to develop new, contextualized
theories.
• Since 1967 ,after Glaster and Strauss published “The Discovery
of Grounded theory”, the theory has undergone numerous
revisions.
BASIC PRINCIPLES:

1. CATEGORIES:
 These designate the grouping together of instances (events,
processes, occurrences.) that share central features or
characteristics with one another.
 There are two levels of abstractions of categories- Low and
High.
 In low level of abstraction; categories function as descriptive
labels
 Example: Anger, pity, anxiety would be categorized under the
header of “emotions”
 In high level of abstraction; categories are more Analytical
rather than descriptive. They interpret rather than simply label.
 Example: References to diverse activities such as getting drunk,
jogging and writing poetry could be categorized as “escape” (if
they appear to be distracting an individual from a problem).
 Both low and high levels depend upon the identification of “the
relations of similarity and difference”, however they function at
different level of abstraction.
2. CODING:
 Categories are identified through coding. Coding is largely
descriptive at the beginning. Descriptive labels are attached to
instances of phenomena (rather analytical labels).
 With the progress of research; high level categories integrate
into smaller meaningful units (analytical categories are
introduced).
 Category labels should be in vivo- they should utilize words or
phrases used by participants in their study. This helps stop the
derivation of labels from existing theories.
 Theoretical coding involves the application of a coding paradigm
to data. It helps researcher identify the particular ways in which
categories may be linked to each other.

3. CONSTANT COMPARITIVE ANALYSIS:

 This ensures the momentum of the coding process by moving
back and forth between the identification of similarities among
and differences between emerging categories.
 Subcategories are made by refocusing on the differences within a
category.
 Example; emotions that require object and that do not require
objects maybe classified differently.
 The ultimate objective is to link and integrate categories in a
way that all instances of variations are captured by the emerging
theory.
 4. NEGATIVE CASE ANALYSIS:
 This ensures that the researcher continues to develop the theory
in light of that evidence.
 Negative cases are searched for and they are the instances that
do not fit.
 This identification of the negative cases allows the researcher to
qualify and elaborate the emerging theory- which would be
more in depth and solid.
5. THEORETICAL SENSITIVITY:
 In this the researcher moves from descriptive to analytical level.
 The researcher interacts with the data- i.e. the questions asked
are modified according to the answers given.
 Each emerging category, idea, concept or linkage informs a new
look at the data to elaborate or modify the original construct.
6. THEORETICAL SAMPLING:
 This involves collecting further data.
 This means checking emerging theories against reality by
sampling incidents that may challenge or elaborate its
developing claims.
 It is concerned with refinement and ultimately saturation of
existing and increasingly analytic, categories.
7. THEORETICAL SATURATION:
 Data collection and analysis is done until saturation is
achieved.
 At this point, no new categories and instances of variations
are seen to emerge.
 Categories and subcategories are finalized from the avalaible
data.
 Saturation is aimed to be achieved but cannot be entirely
achieved as there is always a possibility of changes in
perspectives or modification of categories.
8. MEMO-WRITING:
 Memos are a very important part of the grounded theory.
 The researcher maintains a written record of the definitions,
relationships, integrations and perspectives.
 Memos help identify the changes of directions in the
analytical process as well as to provide a reflection on the
adequacy of the research questions.
 Memos can be long or short, abstract or concrete, integrative
or original, uses words and diagrams. All memos are dated.
RESEARCH QUESTION
Researcher need an initial research question to focus the attention
upon the particular phenomenon they want to investigate.
Initial research question should serve to identify, but not make
assumptions about the phenomenon of interest. Process of labelling
itself import assumptions about a phenomenon.
Example: How do women manage a pregnancy complicated by
chronic illness?
We assume that women “manage” their pregnancies and that
chronic illness constitute a complications in relation to pregnancy.
Research question should be open ended and should not be
compatible with simple yes/no answers.
Do not make too many assumptions.
RESEARCH PROCESS
 Grounded theory is unlike most other research methods in
that it merges the process of data collection and analysis.
 Researcher move back and forth between the two in an
attempt to ground the analysis in the data.
 Grounded theory does not provide the researcher with the
series of steps if they followed correctly, will take them to
the formulation of research question through data
collection to analysis and then finally to the production of
research report.
 Researcher continuously review the earlier stages of the
research, if necessary to change the direction.
DATA COLLECTION:

Grounded theory comprise of a wide range of data collection

techniques:
Semi structured interviewing, participant observation, focus group,
existing texts and documents can also be subjected to grounded
theory analysis.
Full implementation of the method: which requires researcher
moves back and forth between data collection and analysis.
Researcher collects data explores the data through initial open
coding establish linkages between categories and then returns to
the field to collect further data.
Researcher is able to triangulate that he can draw on different data
resources and use different methods of data collection.
Abbreviated version: Involves the coding of data
only.
Works with the original data only. Interview
transcripts or other documents are analysed
following the principles of grounded theory.
Abbreviated version of grounded theory should
never be our first choice it should be used where
time or resource constraints prevent the
implementation of the full version of the grounded
theory.
DATA ANALYSIS:
Coding constitute the most basic as well as the most fundamental
process in the grounded theory.
Coding is carried out by line-by-line, sentence-by-sentence,
paragraph-by-paragraph, page-by-page and so on.
Smaller the unit of analysis the more numerous the descriptive
category that emerge initially. Later stages of analysis will integrate
a lot of these into higher-level analytic category.
Line-by-line: ensures that our analysis is truly grounded and that
higher level category.
Larger chunks of texts such as a whole page our attention is
captured by on particular shrinking occurrence. Then less obvious
but perhaps equally important categories whose true significance
has to emerge can be missed.
There are differences in the ways in which grounded
theory researchers approach the coding process.
Theorists initial open coding involves the generation of
largely descriptive labels for occurrence or phenomenon.

Coding paradigm sensitize the researcher to particular

ways in which categories may be linked with one another. It
will help us in arranging our categories in a meaningful and
hierarchical way.
RESEARCH REPORT:
A qualitative research report should contain information
about the rationale of the study(literature review), and how it
was carried out (data collection and analysis), what was
found and what these findings may mean (implications for
theory and practice).
If the research report contains this information it does not
matter precisely how and in what format it is presented.
Author should strive for clarity first and foremost.
INTRODUCTION:
Introductory chapter should represent a rationale for the study to
be reported.
Rationale can be informed by theoretical or practical concerns.
Arthur argue that particular phenomenon has not explained in
the literature and this study was designed to fill this gap.
May identify a recent social phenomenon that has not been
investigated.
METHOD:
This sections include information about data collection
techniques, choice of contexts and participants and about how
data were coded and how categories were integrated.
If full version is used then researcher needs to provide an
account of how cyclical process of data collection and analysis
progressed throughout the research.
In abbreviated version researcher need to explain why this was
done.
RESULTS:
The presentation of the findings of a grounded theory are
best organized around a key categories identified.
If there is a core category at the center of the phenomenon
under investigation and with which all other categories have
some kind of relationship should be discussed first.
It will also include the visual representation of major
categories and their relationship with one another. Can be in
the form of flowcharts and tables.
DISCUSSION:

This section explains the theoretical and practical implications of

the study.
 What the study contributed to our understanding?
 What may be the practical applications of our findings?
 We may want to reflect upon the focus of our study?
 What does this tell us about our assumptions about
phenomenon?
REFERENCES AND APPENDICES:

All research should include a list of references including all

authors referred to in the report.
There may also be appendices containing additional data
supporting the analysis presented in the report.
There should be clearly labelled and identified at relevant points
in the report itself.
EXAMPLE: 1
 The Discovery of Grounded Theory" by Barney G.
Glaser and Anselm L. Strauss (1967):
 This seminal work by Glaser and Strauss introduced
grounded theory methodology. The authors conducted
a study on dying patients and their interactions with
healthcare professionals. Through systematic data
collection and analysis, they developed the theory of
"dying as a social process." This theory highlighted the
importance of social interactions, symbolic
communication, and the management of emotions in
the experience of dying.
EXAMPLE:2
 Becoming a Mother: Developing a Theory of Early
Motherhood" by Cheryl L. Beck (1993):
 Cheryl Beck conducted a grounded theory study to
explore the experiences of first-time mothers during the
early postpartum period. Through in-depth interviews
and constant comparative analysis, Beck developed the
theory of "maternal identity transformation." This theory
emphasized the process through which women transition
into motherhood, including the challenges, emotions, and
changes in self-identity that occur during this
transformative period.
In the grounded theory, the researcher acts as a witness. She
observe carefully around her and take a detail note in order to
better understand what they are doing and why.
Researcher takes care not to import his or her own assumptions
and expectations into analysis.
Aim of the theory to develop theory not to go beyond the data.
It is the researcher skill, his or her ability to collect and analyze
the data which is seen to determine the outcome of the research.
Social constructionist version of grounded theory take a different
view of the role of the researcher in the research process. From
the social constructionist perspective this theory does not capture
social reality instead it is itself a social construction of reality.
VERSIONS OF GROUNDED THEORY:

 Grounded theory could be applied in number of ways

 Barney Glaster and Anselm Strauss began to disagree about
the nature of method and how it ought to be practiced.
 Strauss and Corbin’d more structured approach and
Chatman’s constructivist version ( referred as grounded
theory) which Glaster recommended should only be reserved
for original grounded theory There were many concerns
related to grounded theory, the first methodology that
highlights the issue to grounded theory was,
 Role of induction in grounded theory
 discovery vs construction”
 and a focus on “social process vs individual experience.”
ROLE OF INDUCTION:
 The grounded theory method was developed to allow new,
contextualized theories to emerge directly from the data.
 It was designed to minimize the imposition of the researcher’s own
categories of meaning upon the data during the research process.
The inclusion of specific coding paradigm e.g researcher looking
for a particular patterns in data. Coding pattern identifies a set of
dimensions of interest and explores.
 Researcher is sensitized to those aspects of data that are considered
to be essential to the understanding of special phenomena. Strauss
and Corbin introduced “axial coding paradigm, which identifies the
process in the analysis made by researcher It also includes
“conditional matrix” to introduce higher level constructs such as
class, gender, race and power into the analysis.
CRITICISM:
 Less prescriptive version
 Deductive element undermines the original purpose of
grounded theory, by imposing researcher-defined categories
or “pet codes”.
DISCOVERY VS CONSTRUCTION:

 Glaser and Strauss, “ the discovery of theory from data “and “researcher
uncovers something that is hidden”. The concept of emergence of
categories and theories also plays down the creative role of researcher in
research process. Charmaz added social constructionist version of
grounded theory that argues that categories and theories DONOT emerge
from data but are constructed by researcher through interaction with
data. What does interaction with data mean? Researcher is asking the
questions from data, she is using the data used previously, as well as
taking under consideration his/ her ( personal, philosophical , theoretical,
methodological) background shape the research process and ultimately
finding. As a result, the theory produced constitutes one particular
reading of the data rather than only truth about the data. Henwood and
Pidegeon substitute the term “ theory generation for discovery” to
capture constructive element in process of theory development.
SOCIAL PROCESSES VS INDIVIDUAL
EXPERIENECS:
 Grounded theory was developed to allow researchers in social sciences to study
and theorize, localised social processes( chronic illness, management,
socialisation of nurses or dying trajectory within particular settings. The aim of
emerging theories was to clarify and explain such processes and theories
consequences. A shift has been made when the researchers attempt to identify
and map social processes, relationship and their consequences for participants,
a focus on participant’s individual experiences is more psychological that
researcher is concerned with the structure of internal world of participants
( thoughts, feelings, beliefs and emotions) rather than social context, causes
and consequences. The former approach takes a view from the “outside in” and
the later proceeds “ from the inside out” later approach has its origination from
cognitive behavioral formulation. Two approaches could be combined by
attempting to capture the lived experience of participants and to explain its
quality in terms of wider social processes and their consequences. It could be
argued that this would indeed be required in order to gain a full understanding
of social psychological phenomena.
EPISTEMOLOGICAL QUESTION:
 What knowledge grounded theory aims to produce ?
 data gathering and analysis
 researchers are encouraged to approach data without
preconceptions or pet theories
 imposition of meaning onto the data is to be avoided at all
cost Categorisation and theorising are simply way in which
the processes are systematically presented to readers by the
researchers
 grounded theory has positivist approach to knowledge
production challenged by those who are attempting to develop
a social constructionist version of the method.
LIMITATIONS OF GROUNDED
THEORY:
 insufficient attention to the role of researcher * not addressing
questions of reflexivity satisfactorily ( categories DONOT
capture the essence of concept)* Henwood and Pidgeon
recommended that ground theory researchers document
carefully and in detail each phase of research process, such
documentation increases reflexivity and demonstrates
researchers assumptions, values, analytical techniques, and
interpretation of context.* social constructionist version of
grounded theory has 2 possible positions * bird’s eye view of
social reality does not exist, therefore the researcher’s own
assumptions, expectations will inevitably shape the theory
that they develop on basis of research.
CONCLUSION:
 In grounded theory we gather data, compare them, remain
open to all possible theoretical understandings of the data, and
develop tentative interpretations about these data through our
codes and nascent categories. Then we go back to the field
and gather more data to check an refine our categories.
REFERENCES:

 https://ebn.bmj.com/content/19/2/34
 https://delvetool.com/groundedtheory
 https://harappa.education/harappa-diaries/gr
ounded-theory-research
/