Introduction

Dip and
Strike
Folds
Faults
Joints
Structural geology is the study of the factors such as origin,
occurrence, classification, type and effects of various
secondary structures like folds, faults, joints,
cleavage etc. and are different from those primary
rock
structures such as bedding and vesicular structure, which
develop in rocks at the time of their formation.
⚫ It means slope or inclination.
⚫ The angle of inclination of a
bedding plane with
horizontal plane is called
amount of dip.
⚫ The direction along which the
inclination of the bedding plane
occurs, is called dip direction.
⚫ So dip is expressed both as
amount and direction.
⚫ The direction angle is
measured with clinometers.
⚫ The direction is measured with
a
⚫ It’s defined as the direction of a
line formed by the intersection of
a bedding plane and a horizontal
plane.
⚫ It’s always at right angle with
the true dip direction.
⚫ It is a horizontal line on a surface
of rock beds.
 Dip

According to
Direction

Apparent
True Dip
Dip

Local &
Primary Secondary
Regional
Dip Dip
Dip
 According to Direction :-
When the dip of layer is measured in a direction that is
True Dip essentially at right angle (90) to the strike of that particular layer.

Apparent When the dip of layer is measured in any other direction,

Dip which is not at right angle (90) to its strike direction.
 According to Deposition :-
When sedimentary rocks are deposited in an originally sloping basin they
(SR) are also inclined in the same fashion. Thus, if the original slope of the
Primary basin of deposition is anything between 5-10 degrees the sedimentary
Dip formations accumulating over there in the period of time, will also have
same direction, such dips are called Primary Dip or Depositional
Gradient.

Secondary dip is inclination induced in the strata after its deposition

Secondary due
Dip to the Tectonic Force. Secondary dip may range in value up to vertical (90).
Most folded mountain ranges of the world strata exhibit Secondary Dip.

Local dips are inclinations of the rocks exposed in a limited area

of observation. They may primary or secondary or may not show any
Local & appreciable variation laterally or with depth.
Regional Regional dips is an averaged general inclination of a series of
Dip formation exposed over a wide area. These rocks may show varying local
dips, both in respect of degree and directions of inclination. Regional dips
are prevail over many hundreds km range.
When a set of horizontal rock layers are subjected
to compressive force, undulation or bends
curvatures developed in the rock layers. These
bends are called folds.
⚫ Hinge: It is the area of maximum curvature. It is
closure of fold sometimes.
⚫ • Hinge line: It is line of maximum curvature.
The hinge line may be horizontal, inclined or
vertical.
⚫ • Limb: These are the areas between the hinges or
in other words these are sides of the fold.
⚫ Axial plane: The imaginary plane which is equidistant from
each limb of a fold.
The axial plane actually cuts the hinge zone of the fold along
a line, which is termed as fold axis or axis.
⚫ Plunge: The attitude of the fold axis is measured as the angle
between the axis and horizontal.
⚫ Crest & Trough: The line running through the highest points in
an up arched fold defines its Crest. A corresponding line through the
lowest p0int in a down arched folds makes its Trough.
 Based on different principles, it can be classified
as :-

Based on outer surface

profile
Based on upward and downward bending
Based on position of the axial plane

Based on degree of compression

Based on mode of occurrence

Based on plunge of the folds

Based on behavior with width

Based on Relative Curvature of outer & inner arcs

Miscellaneous folds
1 Based on upward and downward bending, It can be classified as:-
1 2
When the beds are bent upwards, the
resulting fold is called anticline. This fold
is convex upwards. Naturally, in such a
fold, the older beds occur towards the
concave side, In a simple case, the limbs
of anticline slope in opposite directions
with reference to its axial plane.
Syncline is just opposite to anticline in
its nature, i.e. when the beds are bent
downwards the resulting fold is called
syncline. This fold is convex downwards.
In this the younger beds occur towards
the concave side and, in a simple type of
syncline, its limbs dip towards each other
with reference to the axial plane.
2 Based On Position of the axial plane, It can be classified
as:

:-
When the axial plane
divides a fold into
two equal halves
(half) in such a way
that one half is the
mirror image, then
the fold is called as
symmetrical fold.
 2 Based On Position of the axial plane, It can be classified
as: Overturned Fold
If the compressive forces
responsible for folding are not An overturned fold is an inclined
of the same magnitude, (asymmetric) fold in which both
asymmetrical folds are limbs dip in the same direction
formed.
but with different angles.
2 Based On Position of the axial plane, It can be classified as:

Box Fold
Box fold are special type of fold with
exceptionally flattened top and
steeply inclined limbs almost
forming 3 sides of a rectangle.
Usually the folds have inclined limbs, i.e. the
limbs will be mutually diverging or
converging with reference to axial planes.
But in some folds, the limbs will be
mutually parallel to a great extent. Such
folds are called isoclinals folds. These
folds may be vertical inclined or horizontal.
 2 Based On Position of the axial plane, It can be classified as:

Recumbent Folds Conjugate Folds Fan Folds

Conjugate folds are a pair In Fan folds the anticline
Recumbent folds are extreme types of of folds that are tops are said to have
overturned folds in which the axial apparently related to opened up unto a broad,
each other may have fan-shaped outline due
plane acquires on almost horizontal to intense compression
attitude and limbs comes to lie mutually inclined in the lower region.
axial planes.
exactly under the other limb.
 3 Based On Degree of Compression, It can be classified as:
1 2
Open Fold
The folds in which the thickness of The folds in which thickened crests or
the rocks is not affected during troughs and thinner limbs are
the process. found.
 4 Based On Mode Of Occurrence, It can be classified as:

1 2

Anticlinorium
Anticlinorium is a system of exceptionally
large sized folds running often for
several hundred km in length &
several km in width and having up-
arched folding trend.
Synclinorium is the reverse of
anticlinorium & may defined as an
extensive system of folds having
clearly down-arched folding trend.
 4 Based On Mode Of Occurrence, It can be classified as:

2
Dome
Basin are the reverse of the domes & may be defined
Domes are a group of strata central
as a group of strata that are centrally depressed in
uplifted in such a way that they such a way that the involved layer dip towards a
seen from the top these dip away common central point from all the sides.
in all direction
 5 Based On Plunge Of the Folds, It can be classified as:
1 2

Plunging folds Non-Plunging folds

Any fold in which fold axis is Any fold in which fold axis
not horizontal. is essentially horizontal.
 6 Based On outer surface profile, It can be classified as:

1 2

3 4
Cheveron folds
These are characterized with well- Conjugate folds
defined, sharp hinge points & straight Conjugate folds are composite folds
planner limbs. characterised with 2-hinges & 3
planner limbs in which the
central limb is exceptionally
flattened.
 6 Based On outer surface profile, It can be classified as:

Cuspate folds Cylindrical folds

The limbs of the folds are not planner
they are quite clearly curved becoming
concave upward in the case of
Anticlines & concave downward in the
case of Synclines.
The cylindrical folds resemble sections of
pipes and have very well defined axes
of folds repeated parallel to each
other.
In Non-Cylindrical folds repetition of
axes parallel to themselves is not
possible.
 7 Based On Behaviour with depth, It can be classified as:

1 2
Similar folds
3 Supertanuous folds
Those folds in which
These showing differences in
Concentric folds thickness at crest and the the degree of
The strata in concentric or parallel trough regions, not induced folding is observed
folds has reacted to the effecting by folding process but to be similar for
tangential compression in such a essentially being due to indefinite depths
way that the thickness of the erosional & depositional
involved layer remained are grouped as
processes operating in the
uniform and constant even after folding regions.
similar folds.
folding.
 8 Based On Relative curvature of outer & inner arcs, It can be classified
as:
1 2
Class 2 folds Class 3 folds
3 All those folds in which the All those folds in which the
degree of curvature in degree of curvature in the
Class 1 folds the outer arc (o) of the
All those folds in which outer arc (o) of the fold is
fold is equal to that of greater than that of the
the degree of
curvature in the outer the inner arc (i). {o = i} inner arc (i). {o > i}
arc (o) of the fold is
less than that of the
inner arc (i).
{o < i}
9 Miscellaneous :-
⚫ Non-tectonic causes like landslides, creeping, differential compaction, and
glaciations too are responsible for some folds. These are minor in terms of
frequency of occurrence and magnitude.
⚫ Most of the important folds, as already pointed out, are due to tectonic
causes. But a few folds of a minor type are due to non-tectonic
causes.
A fault may be defined as a fracture surface along which
relative movement of adjacent blocks has taken place.

Faulting is entire process of development of fracture

& displacement of the blocks against each other.
 ⚫ When the offset is small, the
⚫ Faults occur when brittle
displacement can be easily
rocks fracture and there
measured, but sometimes the
is an offset along the
displacement is so large that it
fracture.
is difficult to measure.
Fault plane:- It is the planar surface of fracture along which relative
displacement of the blocks takes place during the process of faulting.
When it is not planar, the same surface is simply described as Fault
Surface.
Fault line:- It is the line of intersection between the fault
plane. 1- Hanging Walls 2- Foot Walls
Hanging Walls:- Fault blocks above the fault place .
Foot Walls:- Fault block below the fault plane.

Fault line
Faults are classified on the basis of :-
1 Based On Apparent movement of fault blocks, It can be classified
as:-

1 2

3 4
1- Normal Faults:- Horst

In normal faults hanging wall has apparently Garben

moved down with respect to foot wall.
Vertical
Fault

Normal Faults
2- Reverse Faults:- 3- Strike-slip Faults:-
In this faulted blocks have
In this hanging wall appears
to have moved up with been moved against each
respect to the foot wall. other in an essentially
horizontal direction. I is
found in large scale like in
oceanic ridge.
4- Hinge Faults:-
Hinge faults are characterised
by a movement of the
disrupted faults along a
medial point . The
movement is therefore
rotational .
2 Based On Attitude of fault plane, It can be classified
as:-

1 2 3

1- Strike Faults:- 2- Dip Faults:- 3- Oblique Faults:-

These are the faults that Dip faults develop parallel Oblique faults strike make an
develop parallel to the to the dip of the strata. oblique angle with the
strike of the strata. strike of the rocks in which it
has it has caused the
displacement.
3 Based On Mode of occurrence, It can be classified
as:-

1 2

3 4
1- Parallel Faults:- 2- Enechelon Faults:-
A group of faults occurring in close proximity, having
A group of small sized faults that
their faults planes striking essentially in the same
direction & having parallel & equal dips from what overlap each other in the
are commonly called parallel faults. region of their occurrence.
3 Based On Mode of occurrence, It can be classified as:-
3- Peripheral Faults:- 4- Radial Faults:-
When in any given region the majority A group of faults appear emerging
of faults are concentrated along outward from a common central
the border or margin of the area. region are classed as radial faults.
4 Based On slip, It can be classified
as:-

1 2 3

1- Strike –slip Faults:- 2- Dip-slip Faults:- 3- Oblique –slip Faults:-

In which net slip is All those faults in which the In which the direction of net
essentially parallel to net slip has taken place slip is neither parallel to the
the strike of the faults, parallel to the dip of the dip of the faults nor to the
the slip along the dip faults, also called Normal- strike of the fault but is
being almost absent. dip-faults. inclined to both these
direction.
Faulting change in the elevation of the ground.
Omission of some strata where they are normally expected.
Repetition of some strata in a given direction against the normal order of super-position.

Displacement & shifts in the continuity of the same rocks in the certain regions.

Example of faults-

Kashmir Himalayas Shimla Thrust Garhwal Himalayas

 Joints are defined as divisional planes or fractures along
which there has been no relative displacement.
Or Any fracture, without any movement is called as joint.
Nature of 1. Open joints 3. Smooth joints 5. Small joints
Joints:- 2. Close joints 4. Rough joints 6. Master joints
Joints are
classified
on the
basis of :-
 Joints are classified on the basis of :-

Spatial
1 Relationship
2 Geometry 3 Origin
Tension
Joints
Strike Oblique
Irregular or Joint Joint Shear
Regular or
Systematic Non- Joints
Joints Systematic
Joints Compression
Joints

Dip Joint Bedding Joint

 1. On the basis of Spatial
Relationship:-
Regular or Systematic Irregular or Non-
Joints Systematic Joints
These shows a distinct regularity in
As the name implies, these joints
their occurrence, which Can be
do not possess any regularity in
measured & mapped easily. Such
their occurrence & distribution.
joints occur in parallel or sub-parallel
They appear at random in the
joints sets that are repeated in the rocks
rocks & may have incompletely
of regular intervals.
defined surfaces.
2. On the basis of
Ge0metry:-
Dip Joint Oblique Joint
When joints sets When strike of the joints
strike, parallel to is at any angle
the dip direction between the dip &
of the rocks, they strike of the layers,
these are also called
are called Strike
Diagonal Joints
Joints.
3. On the basis of
Origin:- Shear Joint
Joints those are commonly
observed in the near of
faults planes & shear
zones where the
relationship with shearing
forces is clearly established.