F U NCT I O N S A N D

EQ U I VA L E N C E R E L AT I O N
ABSTRACT ALGEBRA
 INPUT AND OUTPUT
INPUT FUNCTION OUTPUT

Money Vending machine food

Body Thermometer Celsius/

temperature Fahrenheit
Fuel Car Distance
travelled
 WHAT IS A FUNCTION?
• A function is defined as a relation between a set of inputs having
one output each. In simple words, a function is a relationship
between inputs where each input is related to exactly one output.
Every function has a domain and codomain or range. A function is
generally denoted by f(x) where x is the input. The general
representation of a function is y = f(x).
WHAT IS A FUNCTION IN MATHS?
•A function in maths is a special relationship
among the inputs (i.E. The domain) and their
outputs (known as the codomain) where each
input has exactly one output, and the output
can be traced back to its input.
TYPES OF FUNCTIONS IN MATHS
•
An example of a simple function is f(x) = x2. In this
function, the function f(x) takes the value of “x”
and then squares it. For instance, if x = 3, then
f(3) = 9. A few more examples of functions are:
f(x) = sin x, f(x) = x2 + 3, f(x) = 1/x, f(x) = 2x + 3,
etc.
 THERE ARE SEVERAL TYPES OF FUNCTIONS IN MATHS.
SOME IMPORTANT TYPES ARE:

• Injective function or one to one function: when there is mapping

for a range for each domain between two sets.
• Surjective
functions or onto function: when there is more than
one element mapped from domain to range.
• Inverse functions: the function which can invert another function.
O N E T O O N E F U N C T I O N
 ONE TO ONE FUNCTION
• Basically denotes the mapping of two sets. A function g is one-to-
one if every element of the range of g corresponds to exactly one
element of the domain of g. One-to-one is also written as 1-1. A
function f() is a method, which relates elements/values of one
variable to the elements/values of another variable, in such a way
that the elements of the first variable identically determine the
elements of the second variable.
 DEFINITION OF ONE-TO-ONE FUNCTIONS
• A function has many types, and
one of the most common
functions used is the one-to-
one function or injective
function. Also, we will be
learning here the inverse of this
function
 ONE TO ONE FUNCTION
• One-to-one functions define that each element of one set, say set (A)
is mapped with a unique element of another set, say, set (B).
• It could be defined as each element of set A has a unique element
on set B.
• An injective function (injection) or one-to-one function is a function
that maps distinct elements of its domain to distinct elements of its
codomain.
 In brief, let us consider ‘f’ is a function whose domain is set A. The
function is said to be injective if for all x and y in A,

• Whenever f(x)=f(y), then x=y

• And equivalently, if x ≠ y, then f(x) ≠ f(y)
• Formally, it is stated as, if f(x) = f(y) implies x=y, then f is one-to-one
mapped, or f is 1-1.
• Similarly, if “f” is a function which is one to one, with domain a and range b,
then the inverse of function f is given by; F-1(y) = x ; if and only if f(x) = y
 ONE TO ONE FUNCTION
• A function f : X → Y is said to be one to one (or
injective function), if the images of distinct elements
of X under f are distinct, i.E., For every x1 , x2 ∈ X,
f(x1 ) = f(x2 ) implies x1 = x2 . otherwise, it is called
many to one function.

• The below figure shows two functions, where (i) is

the injective (one to one) function and (ii) is not an
injective, i.E. Many-one function.
EXAMPLES OF INJECTIVE FUNCTION
• The identity function X → X is always injective.
• If function f: r→ r, then f(x) = 2x is injective.
• If function f: r→ r, then f(x) = 2x+1 is injective.
• If function f: r→ r, then f(x) = x is not an injective function,
2

because here if x = -1, then f(-1) = 1 = f(1). Hence, the

element of codomain is not discrete here.
EXAMPLES OF INJECTIVE FUNCTION

• If function f: r→ r, then f(x) = x/2 is injective.

• If function f: r→ r, then f(x) = x3 is injective.
• If function f: r→ r, then f(x) = 4x+5 is injective.
 REAL LIFE EXAMPLE OF ONE-TO-ONE FUNCTIONS

• Each student must complete one worksheet (and the worksheet can only be
completed by one student).

• Humans have unique fingerprints, which only belong to that human.

• A bear may live in a cave that is only home to that bear.
• A company offers only one service, and that service is only offered by that
company.
 ONE TO ONE GRAPH – HORIZONTAL LINE TEST Consider a graph of the function (x) = sin x or cos x as given
in the figure below.

• An injective function can be determined by the

horizontal line test or geometric test.

• If a horizontal line intersects the graph of the

function, more than one time, then the function
is not mapped as one-to-one.

• If a horizontal line can intersect the graph of the

function only a single time, then the function is
mapped as one-to-one.
HOW TO DETERMINE IF A FUNCTION IS ONE TO ONE?

•Testing one to one function graphically: if

the graph of g(x) passes through a unique
value of y every time, then the function is
said to be one to one function (horizontal
line test).
HOW TO DETERMINE IF A FUNCTION IS ONE TO ONE?

•Testing one to one function algebraically:

The function g is said to be one to one if a =
b for every g(a) = g(b)
HOW TO DETERMINE IF A FUNCTION IS ONE TO ONE?
• Testing one to one function using derivatives: A function g(x) is
said to be one-one if and only if either g'(x) > 0 or g'(x) < 0
throughout the domain. i.e., if a function is either increasing or
decreasing throughout, then it is one-one. For example, the
exponential function f(x) = ex is completely an increasing
function throughout its domain (-∞, ∞) and hence it is one-one.
Graph it once and check.
 Example 1:
• Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {a, b, c, d}. Which of the following is a one-to-one
function?
1. {(1, c), (2, c)(2, c)}
2. {(1, a),(2, b),(3, c)}
3. {(1, b)(1, c)}
• The answer is 2.
• Explanation: here, option number 2 satisfies the one-to-one condition, as
elements of set b(range) are uniquely mapped with elements of set a(domain).
ON T O F U N C T I O N
ONTO FUNCTION DEFINITION (SURJECTIVE FUNCTION)

• Onto function could be explained by considering two sets, set A

and set B, which consist of elements. If for every element of
B, there is at least one or more than one element matching
with A, then the function is said to be onto function or
surjective function. The term for the surjective function was
introduced by Nicolas Bourbaki.
 ONTO FUNCTION DEFINITION (SURJECTIVE FUNCTION)

• The first figure, you can see that for

each element of B, there is a pre-
image or a matching element in set
A. Therefore, it is an onto function.
But if you see in the second figure,
one element in set B is not mapped
with any element of set A, so it’s not
an onto or surjective function.
PROPERTIES OF SURJECTIVE FUNCTION
•In a surjective function, every element in the co-
domain will be assigned to at least one element
of the domain.
•The co-domain element in a subjective function
can be an image for more than one element of
the domain set.
 PROPERTIES OF SURJECTIVE FUNCTION
•In a subjective function, the co-domain is equal to the
range.A function f: A →B is an onto, or surjective, function if
the range of f equals the co-domain of the function f.
•Every function that is a surjective function has a right
inverse. Also, every function which has a right inverse can
be considered as a surjective function.
EXAMPLES ON SURJECTIVE FUNCTION

•Example 1: given that the set A = {1, 2, 3},

set B = {4, 5} and let the function f = {(1,
4), (2, 5), (3, 5)}. Show that the function f is
a surjective function from A to B.
EXAMPLES ON SURJECTIVE FUNCTION
• Example 1: given that the
set A = {1, 2, 3}, set B = {4,
5} and let the function f = {(1,
4), (2, 5), (3, 5)}. Show that
the function f is a surjective
function from A to B.
• We can see that the element from set
A,1 has an image 4, and both 2 and 3
have the same image 5. Thus, the
range of the function is {4, 5} which is
equal to set B. So we conclude that F: A
→B is an onto function.
• Therefore, the given function f is a
surjective function.
EXAMPLES ON SURJECTIVE FUNCTION

•Example 2: Identify, if the function f :

R → R defined by g(x) = 1 + x^2, is a
surjective function
EXAMPLES ON SURJECTIVE FUNCTION
• Solution: The given function is g(x) = 1 + x2.
•
Example 2: Identify, if • For the set of real numbers, we know that x2
> 0. So 1 + x2 > 1. g(x) > 1 and hence the
the function f : R → R range of the function is (1, ∞). Whereas, the
second set is R (Real Numbers). So the range is
defined by g(x) = 1 + not equal to co-domain and hence the function is
x^2, is a surjective not a surjective function

function
EXAMPLES ON SURJECTIVE FUNCTION

•Example 3: Prove if the function g : R

→ R defined by g(x) = x^2 is a
surjective function or not.
EXAMPLES ON SURJECTIVE FUNCTION
• Solution:
•Example 2: Identify, if • For the given function g(x) = x^2, the
the function f : R → R domain is the set of all real numbers,
and the range is only the square
defined by g(x) = 1 + numbers, which do not include all the
x^2, is a surjective set of real numbers. Hence the given
function g is not a surjective function.
function
IN V E R S E F U N C T IO N
INVERSE FUNCTION
• An inverse function or an anti function is defined as a function,
which can reverse into another function. In simple words, if
any function “f” takes x to y then, the inverse of “f” will
take y to x. If the function is denoted by ‘f’ or ‘F’, then the
inverse function is denoted by or . One should not confuse (-1)
with exponent or reciprocal here.
 an d g a re inv ers e
If f
t io n s, t he n f (x ) = y if
func
and only if g (y ) = x
DEFINITION
•A function accepts values, performs particular
operations on these values and generates an output.
The inverse function agrees with the resultant,
operates and reaches back to the original function.
•The inverse function returns the original value for
which a function gave the output.
•If you consider functions, f and g are
inverse, f(g(x)) = g(f(x)) = x. A function that
consists of its inverse fetches the original
value.
•Example: f(x) = 2x + 5 = y
•Then, g(y) = (y-5)/2 = x is the inverse of f(x).
NOTE:
•The relation, developed when the independent
variable is interchanged with the variable which
is dependent on a specified equation and this
inverse may or may not be a function.
•Ifthe inverse of a function is itself, then it is
known as inverse function, denoted by f-1(x).
TYPES OF INVERSE FUNCTION
FINDING INVERSE FUNCTION USING ALGEBRA
EXAMPLE
Let function f be defined as a set of ordered pairs as follows:
f = { (-3 , 0) , (-1 , 1) , (0 , 2) , (1 , 4) , (5 , 3)}
The inverse of function f is defined by interchanging the
components (a , b) of the ordered pairs defining function f into
ordered pairs of the form (b , a). Let g be the inverse of function
f; g is then given by
g = {(0 , - 3) , (1 , - 1) , (2 , 0) , (4 , 1) , (3 , 5)}
Inverse Function Notation
The inverse function, denoted f -1, of a one-to-one function f is
defined as

f -1(x) = {(y,x) | such that y = f(x)}

Note: The -1 in f -1 must not be confused with a power.

If function f is not a one-to-one then it does not have an inverse.

More discussions on one to one functions will follow later.
Domain and Range of a Function and its Inverse

Let function f be defined by the set of ordered pairs as

follows:
f = {(1,0),(4,5),(6,9)}
According the definition above, the inverse function of f
is given by:
f = {(0,1),(5,4),(9,6)}
-1

The domain of f is equal to the range of f and the range

-1

of f is equal to the domain of f .

-1
 IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF A FUNCTION AND ITS
INVERSE
• 1) the domain of f -1
is the range of f
2) the range of f -1 is the domain of f
3) (f -1o f)(x) = x for x in the domain of f
4) (f o f -1)(x) = x for x in the domain of f -1
5) the graphs of f and f -1 are reflection of each other on
the line y = x
EXCERSICE
• FOREACH OF THE FUNCTIONS BELOW DETERMINE WHICH OF THE
PROPERTIES HOLD, INJECTIVE, SURJECTIVE, BIJECTIVE. BRIEFLY EXPLAIN
YOUR REASONING.
• (I) THE FUNCTION 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ DEFINED BY 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒^ 𝑥 .
• (II) THE FUNCTION 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ+ DEFINED BY 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒^𝑥 .
• (III) THE FUNCTION 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ DEFINED BY 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 + 1)𝑥(𝑥 − 1).
• (IV) THE FUNCTION 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ DEFINED BY 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 − 9)(𝑥 2 − 4).
(I) THE FUNCTION 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ DEFINED BY 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒^ 𝑥 .

•(I) this function is injective, since 𝑒^𝑥 takes on

each nonnegative real value for exactly one 𝑥.
however, the function is not surjective,
because 𝑒^𝑥 never takes on negative values.
Therefore, the function is not bijective either.
(II) THE FUNCTION 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ+ DEFINED BY 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑒^𝑥 .

•(II) THE FUNCTION 𝑒^𝑥 TAKES ON EVERY

NONNEGATIVE VALUE FOR EXACTLY ONE 𝑥, SO IT IS
INJECTIVE, SURJECTIVE, AND BIJECTIVE.
(III) THE FUNCTION 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ DEFINED BY 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 +
1)𝑥(𝑥 − 1).

•This function is surjective, since it is continuous, it tends to +∞

for large positive 𝑥, and tends to −∞ for large negative 𝑥. the
function takes on each real value for at least one 𝑥. however,
this function is not injective, since it takes on the value 0 at 𝑥 =
−1, 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 1. Therefore, the function is not bijective either.
(IV) THE FUNCTION 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ DEFINED BY 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥
^2 − 9)(𝑥 ^2− 4).

•(Iv) this function is not surjective, it tends to +∞ for

large positive 𝑥, and also tends to +∞ for large
negative 𝑥. also this function is not injective, since it
takes on the value 0 at 𝑥 = 3, 𝑥 = −3, 𝑥 = 4 and 𝑥 = −4.
Therefore, the function is not bijective either
 REVIEW
Injective functions Surjective functions
An injective function is Surjective is a function
one in which each element that maps each element
of Y is transferred to at of Y to some (i.e., at least
most one element of X. one) element of X.
 REVIEW
Injective functions
A function is one-to-one or
injective if it does not map two
different elements in the domain
to the same element in the
range.
Surjective functions
Two simple qualities that
functions may possess prove to
be extremely beneficial. If a
function’s codomain is also its
range, the function is onto or
surjective.
 REVIEW
Injective Surjective
functions functions
function f is injective If f equals its range, a
if a1a2 implies f(a1)≠f(a2) function f:A→B is surjective (onto).
Alternatively, for any bB, there is
some aA such that f(a)=b. This
means that for any y in B, some x in A
exists such that y=f (x).
 REVIEW
Injective Surjective
functions functions
Determine injectivity Determine the
on a given domain. surjectivity of a
domain.
REVIEW
Injective Surjective
functions functions
REVIEW
A C T I V I T Y
FOR EACH OF THE RELATIONS {𝑄, 𝑅, 𝑆, 𝑇,𝑈, 𝑉} BELOW, DETERMINE WHETHER THE
RELATION IS A FUNCTION. IF THE RELATION IS A FUNCTION, DETERMINE WHETHER THE
FUNCTION IS INJECTIVE AND/OR SURJECTIVE.

• (I) 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3}, 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑} 𝑄 = {(1, 𝑎), (2, 𝑑), (3, 𝑏)}
• (II) 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3}, 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} 𝑅 = {(1, 𝑎), (2, 𝑏), (3, 𝑐)}
• (III) 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3}, 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} 𝑆 = {(1, 𝑎), (2, 𝑏), (3, 𝑏)}
• (IV) 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3}, 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑} 𝑇 = {(1, 𝑎), (2, 𝑏), (2, 𝑐), (3, 𝑑)}
• (V) 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3}, 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏} 𝑈 = {(1, 𝑎), (2, 𝑏), (3, 𝑏)}
• (VI) 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3}, 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏} 𝑉 = {(1, 𝑎), (2, 𝑏)}
(I) 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3}, 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑} 𝑄 = {(1, 𝑎), (2, 𝑑), (3, 𝑏)}

•The relation is a function.

•The function is injective.
•The function is not surjective since 𝑐 is not
an element of the range
(II) 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3}, 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} 𝑅 = {(1, 𝑎), (2, 𝑏), (3, 𝑐)}

•(ii) The relation is a function.

•The function is both injective and surjective.
(III) 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3}, 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} 𝑆 = {(1, 𝑎), (2, 𝑏), (3, 𝑏)}

•The relation is a function.

•The function is not injective since 𝑓(2) =
𝑓(3) but 2 ≠ 3.
•The function is not surjective since 𝑐 is not
an element of the range.
(IV) 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3}, 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑} 𝑇 = {(1, 𝑎), (2, 𝑏), (2, 𝑐), (3, 𝑑)}

•(iv) The relation is a not a function since the

relation is not uniquely defined for 2.
(V) 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3}, 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏} 𝑈 = {(1, 𝑎), (2, 𝑏), (3, 𝑏)}

•(V) the relation is a function.

•The function is not injective since 𝑓(2) = 𝑓(3) but 2 ≠ 3.
•The function is surjective.
(VI) 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3}, 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏} 𝑉 = {(1, 𝑎), (2, 𝑏)

•(VI) THE RELATION IS A NOT A FUNCTION SINCE THE

RELATION IS NOT DEFINED FOR 2.
INTERVA L A N D S E T
N O TA T I O N
AN INEQUALITY MAY HAVE INFINITELY MANY SOLUTIONS. THE SET OF ALL
SOLUTIONS CAN BE EXPRESSED USING SET NOTATION OR INTERVAL
NOTATION. THESE NOTATIONS ARE PRESENTED IN THE TABLE BELOW.
EQ U I VA L E N C E R E L AT I O N
EQUIVALENCE RELATION DEFINITION

•A relation R on a set A is said to be

an equivalence relation if and only if the
relation R is reflexive, symmetric and
transitive. The equivalence relation is a
relationship on the set which is generally
represented by the symbol “∼”.
 EQUIVALENCE RELATION
• Definition 1. An equivalence relation is a relationship on a
set, generally denoted by
• “∼”, That is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive for
everything in the set.
• 1. (Reflexivity) a ∼ a,
• 2. (Symmetry) if a ∼ b then b ∼ a,
• 3. (Transitivity) if a ∼ b and b ∼ c then a ∼ c.
Equivalence relations are often used to group together objects that are similar, or
“equivalent”, in some sense.
 EXAMPLE:
•The relation “is equal to”, denoted “=”, is an equivalence
relation on the set of real numbers since for any x, y, z ∈ R:
•1. (Reflexivity) x = x,
•2. (Symmetry) if x = y then y = x,
•3. (Transitivity) if x = y and y = z then x = z. All of these are
true.
EQUIVALENCE RELATION EXAMPLES

•Example: Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and R = {(1,

1), (1, 3), (2, 2), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 3), (4, 2),
(4, 4)}. Show that R is an Equivalence
Relation.
EQUIVALENCE RELATION EXAMPLES
•Example: Let A = {1, 2, •Solution:
3, 4} and R = {(1, 1), (1, •Reflexive: relation R is
3), (2, 2), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, reflexive as (1, 1), (2, 2),
3), (4, 2), (4, 4)}. Show (3, 3) and (4, 4) ∈ R.
that R is an Equivalence
Relation.
EQUIVALENCE RELATION EXAMPLES
•Example: Let A = {1, 2, • Solution:
3, 4} and R = {(1, 1), (1, • Symmetric: relation r is
3), (2, 2), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, symmetric because whenever (a,
3), (4, 2), (4, 4)}. Show b) ∈ R, (b, a) also belongs to r.

that R is an Equivalence • Example: (2, 4) ∈ R ⟹ (4, 2) ∈

Relation. R
EQUIVALENCE RELATION EXAMPLES
• Example: Let A = {1, 2, • Solution:

• Transitive: Relation R is transitive because

3, 4} and R = {(1, 1), (1, whenever (a, b) and (b, c) belongs to R, (a, c)
also belongs to R.
3), (2, 2), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3,
• Example: (3, 1) ∈ R and (1, 3) ∈ R ⟹ (3, 3) ∈
3), (4, 2), (4, 4)}. Show R.
that R is an Equivalence • So, as R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive,
hence, R is an Equivalence Relation.
Relation.
EXAMPLE
•Equality on a set of numbers:
•Let S be the set of all integers. The relation = is an
equivalence relation on S since every number is
equal to itself (reflexivity), if a=b, then b=a
(symmetry), and if a=b and b=c, then a=c
(transitivity)
EXAMPLE
•Congruence modulo n:
•Let S be the set of all integers. Two integers a and b
are said to be congruent modulo n (for some fixed
positive integer n) if their difference a−b is divisible by
n. This is denoted as a ≡ bmod n.
Congruence modulo n:

•Reflexivity:
•For any integer a in S, the difference a−a=0 is divisible
by n. Thus, a ≡a mod n.
•Hence, congruence modulo n is reflexive.
Congruence modulo n:
• Symmetry:
• Let a and b be any two integers in S such that a≡ b mod n. This
means that n divides a−b, so there exists an integer k such that
a−b=n⋅k.
• Multiplying by -1, we get b−a=n⋅(−k), which implies that n also
divides b−a. Thus, b≡ a mod n.
• Hence, congruence modulo n is symmetric
 Congruence modulo n:
• Transitivity:
• Let ,a,b, and c be integers in S such that a ≡b mod n and b ≡ c mod n.
• a≡b mod n implies that there exists an integer k1​such that 1a−b=n⋅k1​.
• b≡cmodn implies that there exists an integer k2​such that b−c=n⋅k2​.
• Adding the two equations, we get: (a−b)+(b−c)=n⋅k1​+n⋅k2​which simplifies to: a−c=n⋅(k1​+k2​).
• This means n divides a−c and thus a ≡ c mod n.
• Hence, congruence modulo n is transitive
SIMILARITY OF TRIANGLES IN GEOMETRY:

•Let S be the set of all triangles in a plane. Two triangles

A and B are related if triangle A is similar to triangle B.
This is reflexive (every triangle is similar to itself),
symmetric (if A is similar to B, then B is similar to A),
and transitive (if A is similar to B and B is similar to C,
then A is similar to C).
X, y ∈ {rock, paper, scissors}, xRy ⇔ x beats y.
• • Paper does not beat paper so R is not reflexive.
• • Paper beats rock, but rock does not beat paper so r is not symmetric.
• • As we never have the case that a beats b and also b beats a, r is antisymmetric.
• • Paper beats rock and rock beats scissors, but paper does not beat scissors,
• So R is not transitive.
• • R is not reflexive so it is not a partial order.
• • R is not reflexive so it is not an equivalence relation.
X, Y ∈ {ROCK, PAPER, SCISSORS}, XRY ⇔ X BEATS OR
TIES Y.
• Everything ties itself so R is reflexive.
• • Paper beats rock, but rock does not beat paper so R is not symmetric.
• • We never have the case that A beats B and also B beats or ties A. Then arb only if a
ties b which only occurs if a = b. So R is antisymmetric.

• • Paper beats rock and rock beats scissors, but paper does not beat scissors, so R is
not transitive.

• • R is not transitive so it is not a partial order.

• • R is not symmetric so it is not an equivalence relat
X, y ∈ R, xRy ⇔ x − y ∈ Z

• • X − X = 0 ∈ Z SO R IS REFLEXIVE.
• • IF X − Y ∈ Z THEN Y − X = −(X − Y) ∈ Z SO R IS SYMMETRIC.
• • IF X − Y ∈ Z AND Y − Z ∈ Z THEN X − Z = (X − Y) + (Y − Z) ∈ Z BECAUSE THE SUM OF TWO INTEGERS IS AN
INTEGER.

• • EXACTLY ONE MEMBER OF EACH EQUIVALENCE CLASS IS IN [0, 1).

X, Y ∈ R, XRY ⇔ COS(X) = COS(Y).
• Cos(x) = cos(x) so R is reflexive.
• If cos(x) = cos(y) then cos(y) = cos(x) so R is symmetric.
• If cos(x) = cos(y) and cos(y) = cos(z) then cos(x) = cos(z) because = is
transitive. Hence R is transitive.
• Cos(x) is injective when we restrict x ∈ [0, π) and surjective onto [−1, 1],
the range of cos(x) on all of R.
Then exactly one member of each equivalence class is in [0, π)