3 Module 1

THE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
COURSE: INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
Module – 1
Diodes, Power Supplies & Bipolar Junction Transistors
Course Instructor
Mr. Sobia Naz
Assistant Professor
Dept. of ECE
NIE, Mysuru
DEPT. OF ECE, NIE MYSURU 12/03/2023 1

Course Structure: Module – 1: Diodes, Power Supplies & Bipolar Junction Transistors
Diodes Power Supplies Bipolar Junction Transistors
 PN junction diodes  Block diagram  BJT as an amplifier
 Zener Diodes  Half-wave rectifier  BJT as a switch
 Full-wave rectifiers and filters
 Voltage regulators

About Semiconductors
 Matter is made up of molecules which consists of ATOMS.
 According to Bohr’s theory, “the atom consists of positively charged nucleus and a number of negatively
charged electrons which revolve round the nucleus in various orbits”.

 A semiconductor is a substance whose resistivity lies between the conductors and insulators.
 The property of resistivity is not the only one that decides a material as a semiconductor, but it has few
properties as follows:
 Semiconductors have the resistivity which is less than insulators and more than conductors.
 Semiconductors have negative temperature co-efficient.
 The resistance in semiconductors, increases with the decrease in temperature and vice versa.
 The Conducting properties of a Semiconductor changes, when a suitable metallic impurity is added to it, which
is a very important property.

Semiconductors
Intrinsic Extrinsic
or or
Pure Semiconductor Impure
Semiconductor
P-Type N-Type

 Intrinsic Semiconductor
A Semiconductor in its extremely pure form is said to be an intrinsic semiconductor.
 Extrinsic Semiconductor
An impure semiconductor, which is formed by doping a pure semiconductor is called as an extrinsic
semiconductor.
 Doping
The process of adding impurities to the semiconductor materials is termed as doping. The impurities added,
are generally pentavalent and trivalent impurities.
 Pentavalent Impurities
 The pentavalent impurities are the ones which has five valence electrons in the outer most orbit.
Example: Bismuth, Antimony, Arsenic, Phosphorus
 The pentavalent atom is called as a donor atom because it donates one electron to the conduction band of
pure semiconductor atom.
 Trivalent Impurities
The trivalent impurities are the ones which has three valence electrons in the outer most orbit.
Example: Gallium, Indium, Aluminum, Boron.
 The trivalent atom is called as an acceptor atom because it accepts one electron from the
semiconductor atom.
 N-Type Extrinsic Semiconductor
 A small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor to result in N-type
extrinsic semiconductor.
 The added impurity has 5 valence electrons.
 For example, if Arsenic atom is added to the germanium atom, four of the valence electrons get
attached with the Ge atoms while one electron remains as a free electron. This is as shown in the
following figure.

 P-Type Extrinsic Semiconductor
 A small amount of trivalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor to result in P-type extrinsic
semiconductor.
 The added impurity has 3 valence electrons.
 For example, if Boron atom is added to the germanium atom, three of the valence electrons get
attached with the Ge atoms, to form three covalent bonds.
 But, one more electron in germanium remains without forming any bond.
 As there is no electron in boron remaining to form a covalent bond, the space is treated as a hole.
This is as shown in the following figure.


 Why Silicon is Preferred in Semiconductors?
 Among the semiconductor materials like germanium and silicon, the extensively used material for
manufacturing various electronic components is Silicon Si.
 Silicon is preferred over germanium for many reasons such as −:
• The energy band gap is 0.7ev, whereas it is 0.2ev for germanium.
• The thermal pair generation is smaller.
• The formation of SiO2 layer is easy for silicon, which helps in the manufacture of many components
along with integration technology.
• Si is easily found in nature than Ge.
• Noise is less in components made up of Si than in Ge.

Diodes – PN Junction Diodes

PN Junction Diodes
 A semiconductor diode is a two terminal electronic component with a PN junction.
 This is also called as a Rectifier.
 The anode which is the positive terminal of a diode is represented with A and the cathode, which
is the negative terminal is represented with K.

PN Junction Diodes
 Formation of a Diode
 If a P-type and an N-type material are brought close to each other, both of them join to form a
junction

PN Junction Diodes
 Biasing of a Diode
 When a diode or any two-terminal component is connected in a circuit, it has two biased conditions
with the given supply.
 They are Forward biased condition and Reverse biased condition.

PN Junction Diodes – Working Principle

PN Junction Diodes – Working Principle

PN Junction Diodes
 P-N Junction Formula
The p-n junction formula, which is based on the built-in potential difference generated by the electric field, is as
follows:
Eo= VTln [ ND – NA / ni2 ]
where,
 The zero-bias junction voltage is E0.
 At room temperature, VT is the thermal voltage.
 The impurity concentrations are denoted by the letters ND and NA.
 The intrinsic concentration is denoted by ni

PN Junction Diodes
 Applications of PN Junction Diode
 When the p-n junction diode’s arrangement is reverse-biased, the diode may be utilized as a photodiode since
it is sensitive to light.
 It has the potential to be utilized as a solar cell.
 The diode can be utilized in LED lighting applications when it is forward-biased.
 Many electric circuits utilized it as a rectifier, while varactors employ it as a voltage-controlled oscillator.

Diodes – Zener Diodes

Zener Diodes
 A Zener Diode, also known as a breakdown diode
 Heavily doped semiconductor device that is designed to operate in the reverse direction.
 Zener Effect
 The voltage across the terminals of a Zener diode is reversed and
 The potential reaches the Zener Voltage (knee voltage), the junction breaks down and
the current flows in the reverse direction.
 History of Zener Diodes
 Clarence Melvin Zener was the first person to describe the electrical properties of Zener
Diode.
 Clarence Zener was a theoretical physicist who worked at Bell Labs.
 As a result of his work, the Zener diode was named after him.
 He first postulated the breakdown effect that bears his name in a paper that was
published in 1934.
Zener Diodes
 There are two types of breakdowns for a Zener Diode:
i. Avalanche Breakdown
ii. Zener Breakdown
 Avalanche Breakdown in Zener Diode
 Avalanche breakdown occurs in normal diode and Zener Diode at high reverse voltage.
 When a high value of reverse voltage is applied to the PN junction, the free electrons gain sufficient energy and
accelerate at high velocities.
 These free electrons moving at high velocity collide with other atoms and knock off more electrons.
 Due to this continuous collision, a large number of free electrons are generated as a result of electric current
in the diode rapidly increases.
 This sudden increase in electric current may permanently destroy the normal diode.
 However, a Zener diode is designed to operate under avalanche breakdown and can sustain the sudden spike
of current.
 Avalanche breakdown occurs in Zener diodes with Zener voltage (Vz) greater than 6V.
Zener Diodes
 Zener Breakdown in Zener Diode
 When the applied reverse bias voltage reaches closer to the Zener voltage, the electric field in the depletion
region gets strong enough to pull electrons from their valence band.
 The valence electrons that gain sufficient energy from the strong electric field of the depletion region break
free from the parent atom.
 At the Zener breakdown region, a small increase in the voltage results in the rapid increase of the electric
current.

Zener Diodes
 Avalanche Breakdown vs Zener Breakdown
 The Zener effect is dominant in voltages up to 5.6 volts and the avalanche effect takes over above that.
 The Zener effect is a quantum phenomenon and the avalanche effect is the movement of electrons in the
valence band like in any electric current.
 Avalanche effect also allows a larger current through the diode than what a Zener breakdown would allow.
 Circuit Symbol of Zener Diode

Zener Diodes
 V-I Characteristics of Zener

Zener Diodes
 Application of Zener Diode
1. Zener diode as a voltage regulator:
 Zener diode is used as a Shunt voltage regulator for regulating voltage across small loads.
 The Zener diode is connected parallel to the load to make it reverse bias, and once the Zener diode exceeds
knee voltage, the voltage across the load will become constant.
 The breakdown voltage of Zener diodes will be constant for a wide range of currents.
2. Zener diode in over-voltage protection:
 When the input voltage is higher than the Zener breakage voltage, the voltage across the resistor drops
resulting in a short circuit, this can be avoided by using the Zener diode.
3. Zener diode in clipping circuits:
 Zener diode is used for modifying AC waveform clipping circuits by limiting the parts of either one or both the
half cycles of an AC waveform.

Power Supplies – Block Diagram

Power Supplies- Block Diagram
 Power Supplies- Block Diagram
Fig. Block diagram of a d.c. power supply
Fig. Block diagram of a d.c. power supply showing principal components

Power Supplies- Block Diagram
 Power Supplies- Block Diagram

Power Supplies – Rectifiers – Half Wave

Power Supplies - Rectifier
Rectifiers
Halfwave Fullwave
Rectifier Rectifier
Bi-Phase Bridge
Rectifier Rectifier

Power Supplies- Rectifiers
 Rectifiers:
 Semiconductor diodes are commonly used to convert alternating current (a.c.) to direct current (d.c), they
are referred to as rectifiers.
 The simplest form of rectifier circuit makes use of a single diode and, since it operates on only either positive
or negative half-cycles of the supply, it is known as a half-wave rectifier.
Fig. A simple half-wave rectifier circuit

 Rectifiers:
Fig.(a) Half-wave rectifier circuit with D1 conducting (positive-going half-cycles of secondary voltage);
(b) Half-wave rectifier with D1 not conducting (negative-going half-cycles of secondary voltage)

 OPERATION OF HALF WAVE RECTIFIER :
D FWD Biased
Vin T1 1
+
+A
+ VL
R t
t Current Flow L
- -
B
-

 OPERATION OF HALF WAVE RECTIFIER :
D REV Biased
1
Vin T1
-
- A
VL
R t
t
L
+B
+

 WAVEFORMS OF HALF WAVE RECTIFIER :
Vin
VL D1 D1 REV D1 D1 REV
FWD Biased FWD Biased
Biased Biased
Pulsating Output
t
Voltage

Fig. A simple half-wave rectifier circuit with

reservoir capacitor
Fig. A simple half-wave rectifier circuit with
reservoir capacitor

Fig. Half-wave rectifier circuit with R–C Fig. Half-wave rectifier circuit with L–C
smoothing filter smoothing filter

 Advantages of Half Wave Rectifier
 Simple circuit with less number of components
 Economical at initial state. Although there is a higher cost over time due to more power losses
 Disadvantages of Half Wave Rectifier
 Converts only one cycle of the sinusoidal input given to it and the other cycle gets wasted. Thus, giving more
power loss.
 HWR produces lower output voltage.
 The output current thus obtained is not purely DC and it still contains a lot of ripple (i.e. it has a high ripple
factor)

 Applications of Half Wave Rectifier
 Appliances
 Used with transformers
 Soldering
 AM radio
 Pulse generated circuits
 Single demodulation
 Voltage multiplier

 Problem 1:
A mains transformer having a turns ratio of 44:1 is connected to a 220 V r.m.s. mains supply. If the secondary output
is applied to a half-wave rectifier, determine the peak voltage that will appear across a load.
 Solution:
The r.m.s. secondary voltage will be given by:
Vs=VP / 44 = 220 / 44 = 5 V
The peak voltage developed after rectification will be given by:
VPK = 1.414 * 5 V = 7.07 V
Assuming that the diode is a silicon device with a forward voltage drop of 0.6 V, the actual peak voltage dropped
across the load will be:
VL = 7.07 V - 0.6 V = 6.47 V

 Problem 2:
The R–C smoothing filter in a 50 Hz mains operated half-wave rectifier circuit consists of R1 = 100 Ω and C2 =
1,000 μF. If 1V of ripple appears at the input of the circuit, determine the amount of ripple appearing at the
output.
 Solution:
The amount of ripple is reduced by an approximate factor equal to:
Xc=1/2πfC
Xc= 1/(2 π * 50 * 1000 *10^-6)
Xc= 3.18 Ω

 Problem 2:
The R–C smoothing filter in a 50 Hz mains operated half-wave rectifier circuit consists of R1 = 100 Ω and C2 =
output.
 Solution:
Vripple = 1 *
Vripple = 0.032V or 32mV

 Problem 3:
The L–C smoothing filter in a 50 Hz mains operated half-wave rectifier circuit consists of L1 = 10 H and C2 =
output.
Solution:
V= (XC) / ( XC + XL)
Xc=1/2πfC
Xc= 1/(2 π * 50 * 1000 *10^-6)
Xc= 3.18 Ω

 Problem 3:
The L–C smoothing filter in a 50 Hz mains operated half-wave rectifier circuit consists of L1 = 10 H and C2 =
output.
Solution:
XL = 2πfL
XL= (2 π * 50 * 10)
XL= 3,140 Ω
Vripple = 1 * (XC) / ( XC + XL)
Vripple = 0.001 V or 1mV

Power Supplies – Rectifiers – Full Wave

Full Wave Rectifiers
 Unfortunately, the half-wave rectifier circuit is relatively inefficient as conduction takes place only on
alternate half-cycles.
 A better rectifier arrangement would make use of both positive and negative half-cycles.
 These full-wave rectifier circuits offer a considerable improvement over their half-wave counterparts.
 They are not only more efficient but are significantly less demanding in terms of the reservoir and
smoothing components.
 There are two basic forms of full-wave rectifier:
1. The bi-phase type and
2. The bridge rectifier type.

 The Bi-Phase Type

D FWD Biased
1
Vin T
A + + VL
1 R
L
B -
-
t +
C
-
D2 REV Biased
D REV Biased
1
Vin T
A - + Vout
1 R
L
B + -
t -
C
+
D2 FWD Biased
Vin
D1 FWD D1 FWD
D2 REV D2 REV
VL D2 FWD D2 FWD
D1 REV D1 REV
Pulsating Output Voltage

t


 Bridge rectifier circuits
Fig: Four diodes connected as a bridge

Fig: Full-wave bridge rectifier circuit


+
vin T1 A
D +
RE
4
V D FW
1 D
t + vout
B D
FW
2 - D
- RE
3 R t
D
V L
-


A-
vin T1 FW
DD
4 D RE
1 V
t + vout
D
RE
2 D
B+ V FW
3 R
D L
-

Fig: Bridge rectifier with reservoir capacitor

DEPT. OF ECE, NIE MYSURU Fig: Waveforms for the bridge rectifier 12/03/2023 60
Voltage regulators
 Voltage regulators
Fig: A simple shunt zener voltage

regulator

Voltage regulators
 Voltage regulators
𝑹𝑳
𝒗 𝒛 =𝒗 𝑰𝑵 ×
𝑹 𝑳+ 𝑹 𝒔
𝒗 𝑰𝑵 −𝒗 𝒛
[ ]
𝒗 𝑰𝑵 𝑹 𝒔 𝒎𝒊𝒏=
𝑹 𝒔 𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝑹 𝑳
𝒗ℤ
−𝟏
[ 𝑷 𝒛 ( 𝒎𝒂𝒙 )
𝒗𝒛 ]
𝑷 𝒛 =𝑰 𝒛 ∗ 𝒗 𝒛 [ 𝒗 𝑰𝑵 −𝒗 𝒛 ] 𝒗 𝒛
𝑹 𝒔 𝒎𝒊𝒏=
𝑷 𝒛 ( 𝐦𝐚𝐱 )

Voltage regulators
 Problem 4
A 5 V zener diode has a maximum rated power dissipation of 500 mW. If the diode is to be used in a
simple regulator circuit to supply a regulated 5 V to a load having a resistance of 400 Ω, determine a
suitable value of series resistor for operation in conjunction with a supply of 9 V.
 Solution
𝑹 𝒔 𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝑹 𝑳
[ 𝒗 𝑰𝑵
𝒗ℤ
−𝟏
] Rs max = 400 [ 9/5 -1] = 320Ω
[ 𝒗 𝑰𝑵 −𝒗 𝒛 ] 𝒗 𝒛
𝑹 𝒔 𝒎𝒊𝒏= Rs min = [((9-5)* 5)/ 0.5] = 40Ω
𝑷 𝒛 ( 𝐦𝐚𝐱 )
Hence a suitable value for RS would be 150 Ω

(roughly mid-way between the two extremes)

Transistors

Transistors
 After having a good knowledge on the working of the diode, which is a single PN junction, let us try to connect
two PN junctions which make a new component called Transistor.
 A Transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device that regulates current or voltage flow and acts as
a switch or gate for signals.
 Why Do We Need Transistors?
 Suppose that you have a FM receiver which grabs the signal you want.
 The received signal will obviously be weak due to the disturbances it would face during its journey.
 Now if this signal is read as it is, you cannot get a fair output.
 Hence we need to amplify the signal. Amplification means increasing the signal strength.
 This is just an instance. Amplification is needed wherever the signal strength has to be increased.
 This is done by a transistor.
 A transistor also acts as a switch to choose between available options.
 It also regulates the incoming current and voltage of the signals.
Transistors
 Introduction
 Transistor – TRANSfer – resISTOR
 The concept of “transferring” a current from low resistance to a high resistance circuit is one version of
“transfer of resistance”.
 Transistors make our electronics world go 'round.
 They're critical as a control source in just about every modern circuit.
 Sometimes you see them, but more-often-than-not they're hidden deep within the die of an integrated
circuit (IC).
 Developed in the year 1947 by three American physicists John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William
Shockley, the transistor is considered as one of the most important inventions in the history of science.

Transistors
Transistors
 Types of Transistors
BJT FET IGBT
NPN JFET MOSFET

Transistors
 Constructional Details of a Transistor
 The Transistor is a three terminal solid state device which is formed by connecting two diodes back to back.
 Hence it has got two PN junctions.
 Three terminals are drawn out of the three semiconductor materials present in it.
 This type of connection offers two types of transistors.
 They are PNP and NPN which means an N-type material between two P types and the other is a P-type
material between two N-types respectively.

Transistors

Transistors

Transistors
 Constructional Details of a Transistor - Emitter
 The left hand side of the shown structure can be understood as Emitter.
 This has a moderate size and is heavily doped as its main function is to supply a number of majority carriers,
i.e. either electrons or holes.
 As this emits electrons, it is called as an Emitter.
 This is simply indicated with the letter E.

Transistors
 Constructional Details of a Transistor - Base
 The middle material in the figure is the Base.
 This is thin and lightly doped.
 Its main function is to pass the majority carriers from the emitter to the collector.
 This is indicated by the letter B.

Transistors
 Constructional Details of a Transistor - Collector
 The right side material in the figure can be understood as a Collector.
 Its name implies its function of collecting the carriers.
 This is a bit larger in size than emitter and base. It is moderately doped.
 This is indicated by the letter C.

Bipolar Junction Transistors

 Transistor Structure

 Operation PNP Transistor

 Operation NPN Transistor

 Operation NPN & PNP Transistor
𝑰 𝑬= 𝑰 𝑪 + 𝑰 𝑩
𝑰 𝑪=𝜶 ⅆ 𝑪 𝑰 𝑬 =+ 𝑰 𝑪𝑩𝑶 IE – Emitter Current
IC – Collector Current
𝑰 𝑪 − 𝑰 𝑪𝑩𝑶
𝜶ⅆ 𝑪 = IB – Base Current
𝑰𝑬
αdc – Common Base current gain (0.96 to 0.99)
𝑰𝑪 ICBO = Collector to Base Leakage Current
𝜶ⅆ 𝑪 =
𝑰𝑬

 3 different possible configurations
 The three types of configurations are:
1. Common Base
2. Common Emitter and
3. Common Collector configurations.
 In every configuration, the emitter junction is forward biased and the collector junction is reverse
biased.

 Common Base configuration

 Common Base configuration

 Common Emitter configuration

 Common Emitter configuration

 Common Collector configuration

 Common Collector configuration

 DC Load Line & Q point

 BJT as an VOLTAGE AMPLIFIER : CE Configuration
a.c Voltage Gain
𝒗𝟎
𝑨𝒗=
𝒗𝒊

 BJT as an Current AMPLIFIER : CE Configuration
a.c Current Gain
βac = ∆IC / ∆IB

 BJT as a SWITCH : CE Configuration

Thank You

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THE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

COURSE: INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

DEPT. OF ECE, NIE MYSURU 12/03/2023 1

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 At room temperature, VT is the thermal voltage.

 The impurity concentrations are denoted by the letters ND and NA.

 The intrinsic concentration is denoted by ni

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Fig. Block diagram of a d.c. power supply

Fig. Block diagram of a d.c. power supply showing principal components

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Fig. A simple half-wave rectifier circuit

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Fig. A simple half-wave rectifier circuit with

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Xc= 1/(2 π * 50 * 1000 *10^-6)

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Vripple = 0.032V or 32mV

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Xc= 1/(2 π * 50 * 1000 *10^-6)

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Vripple = 1 * (XC) / ( XC + XL)

Vripple = 0.001 V or 1mV

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Pulsating Output Voltage

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Fig: Four diodes connected as a bridge