Theory of

Automata
Mathematical Preliminaries

1
 Mathematical Preliminaries

• Sets
• Functions
• Relations
• Graphs
• Proof Techniques

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 SETS
A set is a collection of elements
A  {1, 2, 3}
B  {train, bus, bicycle, airplane}

We write
1 A
ship  B
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 Set Representations

C = { a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k }

C = { a, b, …, k } finite set

S = { 2, 4, 6, … } infinite set

S = { j : j > 0, and j = 2k for some k>0 }

S = { j : j is nonnegative and even }

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A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }
U
6 A
2 3 8
1
7 4 5
9
10

Universal Set: all possible elements

U = { 1 , … , 10 }
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 Set Operations
A = { 1, 2, 3 } B = { 2, 3, 4, 5}
A B
• Union
2 4
1
A U B = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 } 3 5

• Intersection
U
A B = { 2, 3 } 2
3
• Difference
A-B={1}
1
B - A = { 4, 5 }
Venn diagrams
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• Complement
Universal set = {1, …, 7}
A = { 1, 2, 3 } A = { 4, 5, 6, 7}

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A
A 3 6
1
2
5 7

A=A
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{ even integers } = { odd integers }

Integers

1 odd
even
6 5
2
0
4
3 7

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DeMorgan’s Laws

AUB=A B
U

A B=AUB
U

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 Empty, Null Set:
={}

SU =S
U
S = = Universal Set

S- =S

-S=

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 Subset
A = { 1, 2, 3} B = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }
A B

U
Proper Subset: A B

U
B
A

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 Disjoint Sets
A = { 1, 2, 3 } B = { 5, 6}

A B=
U

A B

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 Set Cardinality
• For finite sets
A = { 2, 5, 7 }

|A| = 3

(set size)

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 Powersets
A powerset is a set of sets

S = { a, b, c }

Powerset of S = the set of all the subsets of S

2S = { , {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c} }

Observation: | 2S | = 2|S| ( 8 = 23 )

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 Cartesian Product
A = { 2, 4 } B = { 2, 3, 5 }

A X B = { (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 5), ( 4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 5) }

|A X B| = |A| |B|

Generalizes to more than two sets

AXBX…XZ
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 GRAPHS
A directed graph
e
b
node
a d
edge c
• Nodes (Vertices)
V = { a, b, c, d, e }
• Edges
E = { (a,b), (b,c), (b,e),(c,a), (c,e), (d,c), (e,b), (e,d) }
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 Labeled Graph
2
6 e
b 2
1 3
a 6 d
5
c

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 Walk

e
b
a d

Walk is a sequence of adjacent edges

(e, d), (d, c), (c, a)

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 Path

e
b
a d

Path is a walk where no edge is repeated

Simple path: no node is repeated

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 Cycle

base e
b
3
a 1 d
2
c

Cycle: a walk from a node (base) to itself

Simple cycle: only the base node is repeated

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 Euler Tour
8 base
7 e
b 1
4 6
a 5 2 d
3
c

A cycle that contains each edge once

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 Hamiltonian Cycle
5 base
e
b 1
4
a 2 d
3
c

A simple cycle that contains all nodes

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Finding All Simple Paths

e
b
a d

c
origin

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 Step 1

e
b
a d

c
origin
(c, a)
(c, e)

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 Step 2

e
b
a d

(c, a) c
origin
(c, a), (a, b)
(c, e)
(c, e), (e, b)
(c, e), (e, d)
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 Step 3

e
b
a d

(c, a) c
origin
(c, a), (a, b)
(c, a), (a, b), (b, e)
(c, e)
(c, e), (e, b)
(c, e), (e, d)
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 Step 4

e
b

(c, a) a d

(c, a), (a, b) c

origin
(c, a), (a, b), (b, e)
(c, a), (a, b), (b, e), (e,d)
(c, e)
(c, e), (e, b)
(c, e), (e, d)
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 Trees
root

parent

leaf

child

Trees have no cycles

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 root
Level 0

Level 1
leaf Height 3

Level 2

Level 3

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Binary Trees

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Acknowledgement to Costas Busch

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