HELPING

.
WHY DO WE HELP?
 SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY

Most of our helping behavior comes from a desire

to maximize our rewards and minimize our costs.
We exchange not only material goods and money
but also social goods – love, services, information.
Rewards can be internal or external.
External: receive appreciation, boost self image
Internal: self worth, prevent guilt
 RECIPROCITY NORM
An expectation that people will help not
hurt those who have helped them.

We ‘invest’ in others and expect dividends.

Politicians know that the one who gives a
favor can later expect a favor.

Example: Pak-China friendship.

 SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY NORM
A belief that people should help those who
need help, without regard to future exchanges.

When people who clearly are dependent and

unable to reciprocate, such as children, the
severely impoverished, and those with
disabilities, it is social responsibility norm that
motivates our helping.
ALTRUISM
 ALTRUISM
A motive to increase another’s welfare
without conscious regard for one’s self
interest.

Altruism is selfishness in reverse. An

altruistic person is concerned and helpful
even when no benefits are offered or
expected in return.
MORAL INCLUSION & EXCLUSION

 Moral inclusion encircled people who

differed from themselves. If everyone is
part of our family then boundaries
between ‘we’ and ‘them’ fade.

 Moral exclusion omits certain people

from one’s circle of moral concern. It
justifies all sorts of harm, from
discrimination to genocide.
BYSTANDER EFFECT
 BYSTANDER EFFECT
A phenomenon in which individuals are less likely
to offer help to a victim when other people are
present. The greater the number of bystanders, the
less likely it is that any one of them will help.

Being part of a large crowd diffuses the

responsibility to take action by a single person.
Hence, inaction in emergency situation in the
presence of others.
FAMOUS INCIDENTS OF BYSTANDER EFFECT
IN PAKISTAN