OPERATIONS

MANAGEMENT
RICARDO A. SALVADOR
Chapter Seven
Work Design and
Measurement
 Chapter Seven Work Design and Measurement

Working Conditions
Temperature and Humidity. Although human beings can function under a fairly wide range of temperatures and humidity,
work performance tends to be adversely affected if temperatures or humidity are outside a very narrow comfort
band. Comfort band depends on how strenuous the work is; the more strenuous the work, the lower the comfort range.
Ventilation. Unpleasant and noxious odors can be distracting and dangerous to workers. Moreover, unless smoke
and dust are periodically removed, the air can quickly become stale and annoying.
Illumination. The amount of illumination required depends largely on the type of work being performed; the more
detailed the work, the higher the level of illumination needed for adequate performance. Other important
considerations are the amount of glare and contrast. From a safety standpoint, good lighting in halls, stairways, and other
dangerous points is important. However, because illumination is expensive, high illumination in all areas is not generally
desirable.
Noise and Vibrations. Noise is unwanted sound. It is caused by both equipment and humans. Noise can be annoying or
distracting, leading to errors and accidents. It also can damage or impair hearing if it is loud enough. Vibrations can be a
factor in job design even without a noise component, so merely eliminating sound may not be sufficient in every case.
Vibrations can come from tools, machines, vehicles, human activity, air-conditioning systems, pumps, and other sources.
Corrective measures include padding, stabilizers, shock absorbers, cushioning, and rubber mountings.
Chapter Seven Work Design and Measurement

Work Time and Work Breaks. Reasonable (and sometimes flexible) work hours can provide a sense of freedom and
control over one’s work. This is useful in situations where emphasis is on completing work on a timely basis and meeting
performance objectives rather than being “on duty” for a given time interval, as is the case for most retail and
manufacturing operations. Long work intervals tend to generate boredom and fatigue. Productivity and quality can both
deteriorate. Similarly, periodic vacation breaks can give workers something to look forward to, a change of pace, and a
chance to recharge themselves.
Occupational Health Care. Good worker health contributes to productivity, minimizes health care costs, and enhances
workers’ sense of well-being. Many organizations have exercise and healthy-eating programs designed to improve or
maintain employees’ fitness and general health.
Safety. Worker safety is one of the most basic issues in job design. This area needs constant attention from
management, employees, and designers. Workers cannot be effectively motivated if they feel they are in physical
danger. From an employer standpoint, accidents are undesirable because they are expensive (insurance and
compensation); they usually involve damage to equipment and/or products; they require hiring, training, and makeup
work; and they generally interrupt work. From a worker standpoint, accidents mean physical suffering, mental anguish,
potential loss of earnings, and disruption of the work routine.
Chapter Seven Work Design and Measurement

OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration, created by the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970.
Time-based system Compensation based on time an employee has worked during a pay period.
Output-based (incentive) system Compensation based on amount of output an employee produced during a pay
period.

Ethical Issues. Ethical issues affect operations through work methods, working conditions and employee safety,
accurate record keeping, unbiased performance appraisals, fair compensation, and opportunities for advancement.
Chapter Seven Work Design and Measurement

Knowledge-based pay A pay system used by organizations to reward workers who undergo training that increases
their skills.
Chapter Seven Work Design and Measurement

Job design The act of specifying the contents and methods of jobs.
Specialization Work that concentrates on some aspect of a product or service.
Chapter Seven Work Design and Measurement

Behavioral Approaches to Job Design

Job enlargement Giving a worker a larger portion of the total task, by horizontal loading.
Job rotation Workers periodically exchange jobs.
Job enrichment Increasing responsibility for planning and coordination tasks, by vertical loading.
Self-directed teams Groups empowered to make certain changes in their work processes.

Requirements for successful team building:

1. Clearly stated and commonly held vision and goals.
2. Talent and skills required to meet goals.
3. Clear understanding of team members’ roles and functions.
4. Efficient and shared understanding of procedures and norms.
5. Effective and skilled interpersonal relations.
6. A system of reinforcement and celebration.
7. Clear understanding of the team’s relationship to the greater organization.
Chapter Seven Work Design and Measurement

Ergonomics Incorporation of human factors in the design of the workplace.

Chapter Seven Work Design and Measurement
Chapter Seven Work Design and Measurement
Methods analysis Analyzing how a job is done.
Sources for methods analysis:
1. Changes in tools and equipment.
2. Changes in product design or introduction of new products.
3. Changes in materials or procedures.
4. Government regulations or contractual agreements.
5. Other factors (e.g., accidents, quality problems).

Procedure in methods analysis:

1. Identify the operation to be studied, and gather all pertinent facts about tools, equipment, materials, and so on.
2. For existing jobs, discuss the job with the operator and supervisor to get their input.
3. Study and document the present method of an existing job using process charts. For new jobs, develop charts
based on information about the activities involved.
4. Analyze the job.
5. Propose new methods.
6. Install the new methods.
7. Follow up implementation to assure that improvements have been achieved.
Chapter Seven Work Design and Measurement

Flow process chart Chart used to examine the overall sequence of an operation by focusing on movements of the
operator or flow of materials.
Chapter Seven Work Design and Measurement
Chapter Seven Work Design and Measurement

Worker-machine chart Chart used to determine portions of a work cycle during which an operator and equipment
are busy or idle.
Chapter Seven Work Design and Measurement

Motion study Systematic study of the human motions used to perform an operation.
Motion study principles Guidelines for designing motion-efficient work procedures.
Therbligs Basic elemental motions that make up a job

Different techniques in motion study analysis in developing efficient procedures:

1. Motion study principles.
2. Analysis of therbligs.
3. Micromotion study.
4. Charts.

In developing work methods that are motion efficient, the analyst tries to
1. Eliminate unnecessary motions.
2. Combine activities.
3. Reduce fatigue.
4. Improve the arrangement of the workplace.
5. Improve the design of tools and equipment.
Chapter Seven Work Design and Measurement
Chapter Seven Work Design and Measurement

Micromotion study Use of motion pictures and slow motion to study motions that otherwise would be too rapid to
analyze.
Work measurement Determining how long it should take to do a job.
Standard time The amount of time it should take a qualified worker to complete a specified task, working at a
sustainable rate, using given methods, tools and equipment, raw materials, and workplace arrangement.
Stopwatch time study Development of a time standard based on observations of one worker taken over a number of
cycles.

Basic steps in a time study:

1. Define the task to be studied, and inform the worker who will be studied.
2. Determine the number of cycles to observe.
3. Time the job, and rate the worker’s performance.
4. Compute the standard time.
Chapter Seven Work Design and Measurement

Standard Elemental Times

Standard elemental times are derived from a firm’s own historical time study data.
Procedural steps in using standard elemental times:
1. Analyze the job to identify the standard elements.
2. Check the file for elements that have historical times, and record them. Use time study to obtain others, if
necessary.
3. Modify the file times if necessary (explained below).
4. Sum the elemental times to obtain the normal time, and factor in allowances to obtain the standard time.

Predetermined Time Standards

Predetermined time standards Published data based on extensive research to determine standard elemental times.
Advantages of predetermined time standards:
1. They are based on large numbers of workers under controlled conditions.
2. The analyst is not required to rate performance in developing the standard.
3. There is no disruption of the operation.
4. Standards can be established even before a job is done.
Chapter Seven Work Design and Measurement

Work Sampling
Work sampling is a technique for estimating the proportion of time that a worker or machine spends on various
activities and the idle time.

Work sampling is occasionally used to set time standards, its two primary uses are in (1) ratio-delay studies, which
concern the percentage of a worker’s time that involves unavoidable delays or the proportion of time a machine is
idle, and (2) analysis of nonrepetitive jobs.

Procedural steps in work sampling:

1. Clearly identify the worker(s) or machine(s) to be studied.
2. Notify the workers and supervisors of the purpose of the study to avoid arousing suspicions.
3. Compute an initial estimate of sample size using a preliminary estimate of p, if available (e.g., from analyst
experience or past data). Otherwise, use pˆ .50.
4. Develop a random observation schedule.
5. Begin taking observations. Recompute the required sample size several times during the study.
6. Determine the estimated proportion of time spent on the specified activity.
Chapter Seven Work Design and Measurement

Random number table Table consisting of unordered sequences of numbers, used to determine random
observation schedules.
Chapter Seven Work Design and Measurement

The procedure for identifying random times at which to make work sampling observations involves the following steps:

1. Determine the number of days in the study and the number of hours per day. This will indicate the required
number of digits for days and hours.
2. Obtain the necessary number of sets for days, ignoring any sets that exceed the number
of days.
3. Repeat step 2 for hours.
4. Repeat step 2 for minutes.
5. Link the days, hours, and minutes in the order they were obtained.
6. Place the observation times in chronological order.
Chapter Seven Work Design and Measurement