Research Methodology

8.3.2016
Last lecture……
• Conceptualization
• Operationalization
• Reliability and Validity
External Validity
External validity (sampling for representation) is the condition
permitting the generalization or inference of the sample findings
to the population from which the sample was selected.
By the end of the session you will be able
to:
• Explain what sampling means in research
• List the different sampling methods available
Sampling
• Sample frame = the target population you wish to research

• Census = all the respondents in the sample frame participating in the

research

• Sample = a smaller group selected from the sample frame to participate

in the research

• Sample method = the technique used to select the sample

Representativeness
• Representativeness is defined as the level of how well or
how accurately something reflects upon a sample.
• There are a number of different methods used to generate a
sample.
Types of Sampling Methods
Sampling methods can be split into two distinct groups:

1. Probability samples
2. Non-probability samples
Probability Samples
• Probability samples offer each respondent an equal probability or
chance at being included in the sample.
• They are considered to be:
• Objective
• Empirical
• Scientific
• Quantitative
• Representative

The idea behind this type is random selection.

Non Probability Samples
• A non probability sample relies on the researcher selecting the
respondents.
• They are considered to be:
• Subjective
• Not scientific
• Qualitative
• Unrepresentative
Probability Sampling Techniques
1. Random Sampling
2. Systematic Random Sampling
3. Stratified Random Sampling
4. Cluster Random Sampling
5. Quota Random Sampling
6. Multi-Stage Sampling
1. Random Sampling
• Random means that each person within the sample frame has an equal
chance of being selected.
• In order to be random, a full list of everyone within a sample frame is
required.
• Random number tables or a computer is then used to select
respondents at random from the list.
Simple random sampling
1. Systematic Random Sampling
This selection is like random sampling but rather than use random tables
or a computer to select your respondents you select them in a systematic
way. For instance, every 3rd person on the college list is selected.
3. Stratified Random Sampling
• In this form of sampling, the population is first divided or organized
into two or more mutually exclusive homogenous subsets before
sampling.
• These subsets, called strata, are non-overlapping and together they
comprise the whole of the population.
• Sample is drawn random within each subsets.
The primary benefit of this method is to ensure that cases from smaller
strata of the population are included in sufficient numbers to allow
comparison
4. Cluster Random Sampling
• In some instances the primary sampling unit is not the individual
element, but a large cluster of elements.
• Similar to stratified sampling but the groups/sunsets are selected for
their geographical location.
• Constructing a complete list of population elements is difficult, costly, or
impossible.
• The population is concentrated in "natural" clusters (city blocks, schools,
hospitals, etc.
• Elements with each strata are Homogenous but are Heterogeneous
across strata.
The Difference Between Strata and Clusters
• Although strata and clusters are both non-overlapping subsets of the
population, they differ in several ways.

• With stratified sampling, the best survey results occur when elements within
strata are internally homogeneous.
• With cluster sampling, the best results occur when elements within clusters
are internally heterogeneous.
5. Quota Random Sampling
• The sampling procedure that ensure that a certain
characteristic of a population sample will be represented
to the exact extent that the investigator desires
• Rather than taking just anyone, you set quotas to ensure that the
sample you get represents certain characteristics in proportion to their
prevalence in the population.
• Need to know something about the characteristics of the population
ahead of time
5. Quota Random Sampling
• if the sample frame is car drivers and the car driving population is
55% male and 45% female then the quota would require the same
proportions.

Get only as many as you need

Non-probability Sampling
• Convenience Sampling
• Snowball Sampling
• Purposive Sample

• These non-probability methods can be used in conjuncture with the

cluster, quota or stratified methods, however they will remain non-
probability samples
1. Convenience Sampling
• This involves selecting the nearest and most convenient people to
participate in the research.
• This method of selection is not representative and is considered a
very unsatisfactory way to conduct research.
2. Snowball Sampling
• The sampling procedure in which the initial respondents are chosen
by probability or non-probability methods, and then additional
respondents are obtained by information provided by the initial
respondents (such as being members of a gang).
• Snowball Sampling is choosing the participants to find more
participants for making a sample group.
3. Purposive Sampling
• Also known as judgmental, selective or subjective sampling.
• When members of the sample are purposively selected because they
possess certain traits that are critical to the study
• Limited generalizability
Choosing a sampling method

Method Best when

Simple random sampling Whole population is available.

Stratified sampling There are specific sub-groups to investigate (eg.

demographic groupings).

Systematic sampling When a stream of representative people are available

(eg. in the street).

When population groups are separated and access to all

Cluster sampling is difficult, eg. in many distant cities.
 Choosing a sampling method
Method Best when

Snowball sampling You are ethically and socially able to ask and seek similar
subjects. (ask for recommendations)

Convenience sampling You cannot proactively seek out subjects.

Judgment sampling You are expert and there is no other choice.

Quota sampling You have access to a wide population, including sub-groups

Sample Size
• When conducting probability sampling it is important to use a sample
size that is appropriate to the aims and objectives of the research.
• A common error is to assume that the sample should be a certain
percentage of the population, for example 10%. In reality there is no
such relationship and it only the size of the sample that is important.
• A probability sample size of 100+ is considered a large enough sample to
conduct statistical analysis
Result from survey is never exactly the same
as the actual value in the population
Survey Error and Survey Bias
• In survey research, error can be defined as

any difference between the average values that were obtained

through a study and the true average values of the population being
targeted.
Survey Error and Survey Bias
• bias refers only to error that is systematic in nature.
• For example, including a question like “Do you drive recklessly?” in a public
safety survey would create systematic error and therefore be bias.
Non-sampling bias
• Is present even if sampling and analysis done correctly
• Would still be present if survey measured outcome in ENTIRE
sampling frame

you have either sampled the wrong people or screwed up your

measurements!
Non-sampling bias
Source of bias Prevention or cure
Sampling frame
Use current out offrame
sampling date
Limit generalizations
Non-response
Minimize non-response
Use various statistical methods to weight data

Standardize instruments
Measurement error questions
Write clear & simple
Train and supervise survey workers
Sampling bias
• Selection of non-representative sample, i.e., the likelihood of selection
not equal for each sampling unit
• Failure to weight analysis of unequal probability sample

you have not sampled people with equal probability

and you have not accounted for this in your analysis!
Sampling bias
• Examples
• Non-representative sample
• Selecting youngest child in household
• Choosing households close to the road
• Using a different sampling fraction in different provinces
• Failure to do statistical weighting
Sampling error
• Difference between survey result and population value due to
random selection of sample
• Influenced by:
• Sample size
• Sampling scheme

Unlike non-sampling bias and sampling bias, it can be

predicted, calculated, and accounted for.
Sampling error
• Measures of sampling error:
• Confidence limits
• Standard error
• Coefficient of variance
• P values
• Others
• Use these measures to:
• Calculate sample size prior to sampling
• Determine how sure we are of result after analysis