Course

Code Course Title Core / Elective

(PROFESSIONAL
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING ELECTIVE – II)
CE 413 Contact Hours per Week CIE SEE Credits
3 30 70 3

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 UNIT-2
Traffic Studies, Measurement and Analysis; Volume studies, speed studies,
Travel forecasting principles and techniques, design hourly volumes and
speed
origin and destination studies, presentation of data and analysis,
Testing of hypothesis relating to improvements

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 Objectives of traffic studies

• A detailed knowledge of the operating characteristics of the traffic is

essential to form a basis for the establishment of traffic control or for
design of streets and highways.
• The results of data collected during traffic studies are used in
• Traffic planning
• Traffic management
• Economic studies
• Traffic and environmental control and
• Monitoring trends , both for establishment and updating of design
standards
Traffic studies
Traffic studies can be broadly classified into two categories
• Concerned with the characteristics of traffic in transit
• Volume studies and characteristics
• Speed and delay studies
• Origin and Destination (O&D) studies
• Road life studies
• Motor vehicle use studies
• Studies related to land use movements
• Parking studies
• Accident studies
 Traffic Volume studies and characteristics
• Volume of traffic is a very important variable and is essentially the
quantity of movement per unit of time at a specified location
• The quantity of movement may be either of single traffic unit-
pedestrians, cars, buses or goods vehicles or of composite groups such as
tractor trailer, etc.
• Time period will depend on the purpose of study.
• The required level of accuracy will determine the frequency, duration and
sub-division of the particular flow
• Volume studies are basically useful to establish
• The relative importance of any route
• The fluctuations in flows
• The distribution of traffic on the road system
• The trends in road use
 Measurements of traffic volume
Average Annual Volume, expressed as Vehicles per year useful in estimating revenue
Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT) : The average 24-hour traffic volume at a given
location over a full 365-day year, i.e. the total number of vehicles passing the site in a
year divided by 365.
Average Annual Weekday Traffic (AAWT): The average 24-hour traffic volume occurring
on weekdays over a full year. It is computed by dividing the total weekday traffic
volume for the year by 260
Average Daily Traffic(ADT) : An average 24-hour traffic volume at a given location for
some period of time less than a year. It may be measured for six months, a season, a
month, a week, or as little as two days. An ADT is a valid number only for the period
over which it was measured
Average Weekday Traffic(AWT) : An average 24-hour traffic volume occurring on
weekdays for some period of time less than one year, such as for a month or a season
Hourly flow, expressed in vehicles per hour. The single hour of the day that has the
highest hourly volume is referred to as the peak hour
 Types of vehicle volume counts and uses
• Short term counts (hourly)
• To determine peak hour traffic flow
• Used in measuring saturated flow at signalized intersections
• Used in intersection counts during morning and evening peaks
• Full day counts
• To determine hourly fluctuation of flow
• Used in intersection counts
• Used in cordon line and screen line counts as part of transportation survey
• Full week counts
• To determine hourly and daily fluctuation of flow
• Used generally in developing countries as the only means of traffic census on non-urban highways
• Used in cordon line and screen line counts as part of urban transportation survey
• Continuous counts
• To determine the fluctuation of flow daily, weekly, seasonally and yearly
• To determine the annual rate of growth of traffic
• Used generally in developing countries at selected no.of stations for a continuous monitoring of traffic
flow in urban and non-urban locations
Methods of Traffic Counts
• Manual methods
• Combination of manual and mechanical methods
• Automatic devices
• Sensors (detectors)
• Recording mechanism
• Moving observer method
• Photographic methods
IRC 108 2015
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10
PCU Equivalent factors

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The advantages of manual methods and
situations where these are to be preferred
• Details such as vehicle classification, no.of occupants, can be easily obtained. With automatic
devices these data are unfortunately lacking and hence automatic counting should be supported
by manual counts
• The data can be collected giving the breakdown of traffic in each direction of travel
• Specific vehicular movements such as left turns, right turns, straight-aheads etc. at a junction can
be noted and recorded
• Manual methods enable any unusual conditions obtaining at the time of count to be recorded.
This will help in understanding and analyzing the traffic characteristics. Unusual conditions can be
adverse weather, traffic breakdowns, temporary closure of any lane etc.
• In developing countries, sophisticated automatic devices are not indigenously produced. On the
other hand, manpower for counting is available comparatively cheaply
• Data accumulated by manual methods are easy to analyse
• Manual methods are suitable for short term and non-continuous counts
Advantages of automatic devices and
situations dictating their use
• Where a continuous and regular record of traffic flow is needed, the only alternative is to install
automatic counters
• Their use has been very wide spread in the developed countries, where traffic engineering and
transportation planning have attained a high degree of perfection
• If counts of remote areas are needed, automatic devices are useful
• Automatic devices usually yield data which are amenable to easy analysis by computers
Methods of traffic counts
Manual methods
• Manual methods use field personnel to count and classify traffic
flowing past a fixed point
• Manual traffic counting requires trained observers. They must be
relieved periodically to avoid fatigue and degraded performance.
• Equipment needed
• A watch
• Pencils, eraser and sharpener
• Blank field data sheets
• Clip board
Combination of manual and mechanical
method
• Multiple pen recorder
• A chart moves continuously at the speed of clock
• Different pens record the occurrence of different events on the chart
• The actuation of the event recorder pen is by pressing the electric switch associated
with each pen recorder
• Advantages
• A permanent record is kept of the arrival of each class of vehicle. The classification
and vehicle count are performed simultaneously
• Additional information such as time head ways between successive vehicles and the
arrivals per unit time become available
• Disadvantage
• The analysis of data accumulated by multiple pen recorder is time consuming
Volume counts-Automatic devices
Essential parts of automatic devices
• Detectors
• Pneumatic tube (road tube)
• Electric contact
• Co-axial cable
• Photo-electric
• Radar
• Infrared and ultrasonic
• Magnetic
• Recording mechanism
• Counting register
• Printed out-put
• Electronic system
Volume counts-Video Photography
• It gives permanent record of volume counts
• Analysis can be done conveniently in the office by replaying the
casette on a TV monitor
Constituents of a road's design traffic volume
current traffic is the number of vehicles that would
use the new road if it were open to traffic at the time the
current measurements are taken.
Current traffic is composed of reassigned traffic and
redistributed traffic.
Reassigned traffic is the amount of existing same-
destination traffic that will immediately transfer from the
existing road(s) that the new road is designed to relieve.
Redistributed traffic is that which already exists
on other roads in the region but which will transfer to the
new road because of changes in trip destination brought
about by the new road's attractiveness

Normal traffic growth is the increase in traffic volume due to the cumulative annual
increases in the numbers and usage of motor vehicles.
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• Generated traffic is future vehicle trips that are generated anew as a direct result of the
new road. Generated traffic constituent components: induced, converted, and
development traffic
• Induced traffic consists of traffic that did not exist previously in any form and which results
from the construction of the new facility, and of traffic composed of extra journeys by
existing vehicles as a result of the increased convenience and reduced travel time via the
new road.
• Converted traffic is that which results from changes in mode of travel; for instance, the
building of a motorway may make a route so attractive that traffic which previously made
the same trip by bus or rail may now do so by car (or by lorry, in the case of freight).
• Development traffic is the future traffic volume component that is due to developments on
land adjacent to a new road over and above that which would have taken place had the
new road not been built. Increased traffic due to 'normal' development of adjacent land is
a part of normal traffic growth and is not a part of development traffic
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Design Hourly Volume
• The design hourly volume (DHV)
is the projected hourly volume
that is used for design. This
volume is usually taken as a
percentage of the expected ADT
on the highway. Figure 15.3
shows the relationship between
the highest hourly volumes and
ADT.

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Design Speed
• Design speed is defined as a selected speed to determine the various
geometric features of the roadway.
• Design speed depends on the
• functional classification of the highway,
• the topography of the area in which the highway is located, and
• the land use of the adjacent area.

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 Speed and delay studies
•Uses of Spot speed
• For geometric design of roads, it is necessary to have a realistic estimate of the
speeds at which vehicles travel. Based on the speed studies, the design speed can
be selected, and other geometric elements of design such as horizontal curvature,
vertical profile, sight distances, super elevation e.t.c. can be determined
• For regulation and control of traffic operations spot speed studies are needed.
They enable the safe speed limits to be established and speed zoning to be
determined. Traffic signal designs require speed data. Location and size of traffic
signs are dependent upon speed
• For analysing causes of accidents and identifying any relation between speed and
accidents, spot speed data are needed
• For before and after studies of road improvement schemes
• For determining problem of congestion on roads and relating capacity with
speeds, accurate speed data are useful
Speed and delay studies
Uses of Journey speed
• Cost of a journey depends on speed. In all highway economic
studies journey speeds and delays are highly important
• Journey-time studies on road network in a town are useful to
evaluate congestion, capacity, level of services and the need for
improvements
• In transportation planning studies, the determination of the
travel time is necessary for carrying out trip assignment. Also
travel time and delays are some of the factors affecting modal
choice
• Before and after studies pertaining to journey time are useful
for assessing the effectiveness of improvement measures
• Delay studies at intersections provide data for the design and
installation of the appropriate traffic control devices
Methods of measuring spot speeds
1. Observation of time to cover known distance
a. Long base methods
1. Direct timing procedure: two observers, errors due to parallax effect,
reaction time of two individuals
2. Enoscope (mirror box): one or two instruments
3. Pressure contact tubes
b. Short base (say 2m) methods use detectors and electronic
systems
2. Radar speed meters
Work on Doppler principle, used by traffic police also
3. Photographic method
Time-lapse camera photography in crowded streets
Photographs are taken at fixed intervals of time
Measurement of running speed and journey
speed
Methods for measurement of running speed and journey speed

1. Moving observer method

2. Registration number method
3. Elevated observer method
Moving observer method for
Running speed and journey speed
• Speed, flow, delays and travel time can be obtained by travelling in a car
along & against flow
• Usually it involves two test cars each car carrying 3 observers one driver
• It is desirable to have two stop watches in each car
• Observers takes the note of journey time, no.of vehicles met with from the
opposite direction, and no.of vehicles overtaking the test vehicle and delays
at intersections
• This method is well suited to study the speeds along different roads in an
area
• A journey log is prepared
Advantages of moving observer method
• The method gives an unbiased estimate of the flow. Random errors can occur but not serious
• As compared to the stationery observer method, this method is equivalent to a stationery count
over twice the single journey time. Hence it is economical in manpower
• It enables data on speed and flow to be collected at the same time. This is particularly
advantageous when analysing the relations between the two
• It gives mean values of flow and speed over a section, rather than at a point. Thus it gives directly
the space mean speed, where as the spot speed studies gives the time mean speed
• It gives additional information on stops at intersections, delays, parked vehicles etc.
Registration number method for
Running speed and journey speed
• Observers are stationed at the ends of a measuring section
• Time and registration number of vehicles entering and leaving the
section are noted
• Synchronized watches are used
• The vehicle classification can also be noted
• No sophisticated equipments are needed except stop watches
• The analysis is laborious and time consuming, but can be rendered
easier by the help of computers
• No data on delays, only journey speed records and not running speeds
Elevated observer method for
Running speed and journey speed
• Observers stationed on top of an elevated building select vehicles at
random and follow their course along the road, noting the time of
entering the test section, duration and nature of delays suffered and
the time of leaving
• The test section has to be short, such as a street in the central area of
a city
Presentation of spot speed data
Speed class Mid No.of Frequenc Cumulative
limits point vehicles y% frequency %
(kmph) speed
26-29.9 28 9 2.5 2.5
30-33.9 32 74 20.4 22.9
34-37.9 36 79 21.7 44.6
38-41.9 40 75 20.7 65.3
42-45.9 44 66 18.2 83.5
46-49.9 48 33 9.1 92.6
50-53.9 52 17 4.7 97.3
100
54-57.9 56 6 1.6 98.9
90
58-61.9 60 1 0.3 99.2
80

Cumulative % of speed
62-65.9 64 3 0.8 100 70
Total=363
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98th percentile speed-design speed in geometric designs
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85th percentile speed-traffic regulation speed limit 30
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50th percentile speed-Medium speed 10
15th percentile speed-lower speed limit 0
25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
Speed in KMPH
 Travel forecasting Principles
• Behavioral Understanding:
• Consider the underlying factors influencing travel behavior, such as demographics, economic conditions, land use patterns,
and social trends.
• Recognize that travel decisions are made by individuals and households based on various factors, including accessibility,
cost, and convenience.
• Multimodal Approach:
• Account for different modes of transportation, including cars, public transit, walking, and biking.
• Recognize the interconnectedness of different transportation modes and their impact on travel choices.
• Spatial and Temporal Considerations:
• Recognize the spatial distribution of activities and their influence on travel demand.
• Consider the temporal aspects of travel, such as peak hours and seasonal variations.
• Feedback Mechanisms:
• Understand that changes in transportation infrastructure and policies can influence travel behavior, creating feedback
loops.
• Account for the dynamic nature of the transportation system.
• Data Quality and Validity:
• Rely on accurate and up-to-date data for forecasting.
• Validate models using real-world data to ensure their reliability.
• Scenario Planning:
• Consider various future scenarios, including changes in land use, technology, and transportation policies. 32
• Plan for uncertainties and adaptability in forecasting models.
 Urban transportation forecasting
• To accomplish the objectives and tasks of the urban transportation
planning process, a technical effort referred to as the urban transportation
forecasting process is carried out to analyze the performance of various
alternatives.
• There are four basic elements and related tasks in the process:
(1) data collection (or inventories),
(2) analysis of existing conditions and calibration of forecasting techniques,
(3) forecast of future travel demand, and
(4) analysis of the results.

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 Travel demand
The prediction of highway demand requires a unit of measurement for travel behaviour to be defined. This unit is
termed a trip and involves movement from a single origin to a single destination.
The parameters utilised to detail the nature and extent of a given trip are as follows:
Purpose
Time of departure and arrival
Mode employed
Distance of origin from destination
Route travelled.

Travel demand generated by

• Populations need to work
• Entertain
• Socialize
• study 34
Relationship b/w Land use and transportation demand

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Travel forecasting principles and techniques
• Travel demand forecasting attempts to quantify the amount
of travel on the transportation system
• Basic phases of traditional travel demand forecasting
• Step 1—Trip Generation
• Step 2—Trip Distribution
• Step 3—Mode Choice and
• Step 4—Traffic Assignment

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 Trip generation
• The purpose of trip generation is to estimate the number of trips of each
type that begin or end in each location, based on the amount of activity in
an analysis area.
• In most models, trips are aggregated to a specific unit of geography (e.g.,
a traffic analysis zone).
• The estimated number of daily trips will be in the flow unit that is used by
the model, which is usually one of the following:
• vehicle trips;
• person trips in motorized modes (auto and transit); or person trips by all modes,
including both motorized and non-motorized (walking, bicycling) modes.

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Four-step modeling process

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Trip Distribution

• Addresses the question of how many trips travel between units of geography
(e.g., traffic analysis zones).
• In effect, it links the trip productions and attractions from the trip generation step.
• Trip distribution requires explanatory variables that are related to the cost
(including time) of travel between zones, as well as the amount of trip-making
activity in both the origin zone and the destination zone. The outputs of trip
distribution are production-attraction zonal trip tables by purpose.
• Models of external travel estimate the trips that originate or are destined outside
the model’s geographic region (the model area). These models include elements
of trip generation and distribution, and so the outputs are trip tables representing
external travel. 39
Mode Choice/ Modal split

• The trips in the tables output by the trip distribution step are split into trips by travel mode.
The mode definitions vary depending on the types of transportation options offered in the
model’s geographic region and the types of planning analyses required, but they can be
generally grouped into automobile, transit, and non-motorized modes.
• Transit modes may be defined by access mode (walk, auto) and/or by service type (local bus,
express bus, heavy rail, light rail, commuter rail, etc.).
• Non-motorized modes, which are not yet included in some models, especially in smaller urban
areas, include walking and bicycling.
• Auto modes are often defined by occupancy levels (drive alone, shared ride with two
occupants, etc.). When auto modes are not modelled separately, automobile occupancy
factors are used to convert the auto person trips to vehicle trips prior to assignment.
• The outputs of the mode choice process include person trip tables by mode and purpose and
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auto vehicle trip tables
 Traffic Assignment

• This step consists of separate highway and transit assignment processes. The
highway assignment process routes vehicle trips from the origin-destination
trip tables onto paths along
• the highway network, resulting in traffic volumes on network links by time of
day and, perhaps, vehicle type. Speed and travel time estimates, which reflect
the levels of congestion indicated by link volumes, are also output.
• The transit assignment process routes trips from the transit trip tables onto
individual transit routes and links, resulting in transit line volumes and
station/stop boardings and alightings
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 Origin and Destination Studies

• Origin is defined as the place where the trip begins and the destination is
defined as the place where the trip ends
• An origin-destination study is used to determine travel patterns of traffic on
an installation during a typical day. They are useful in assisting long-range
traffic planning
• This is a study to determine and analyze trips. Trips are defined as one-way
movement, from where a person starts (origin) to where the person is
going(destination). Trips are further classified as follows:
• Internal--From one point on post to another point on post.
• External--From on-post to off-post or vice versa.
• Through--From off-post to off-post, by going through the installation
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O-D Data presentation

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 O-D Data presentation
line desire map and the route volume map.
In the line desire map, each dark line or bar, of varying widths, represents traffic volume
from one key area to another. The line desire map locates pictorially the major traffic
patterns.
Another method of showing this information is by bars signifying volume superimposed on
an actual road map. This is a route volume map
Figure 4 graphically illustrates how an OD study might be applied along a corridor for signal
timing coordination or safety analysis. the thickness of the arrow represents the relative
traffic flow

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desire line map

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Specific uses of O&D survey data
• To determine the amount of by-passable traffic that enters a town, and thus
establish the need for a by-pass
• To develop trip generation and trip distribution models in transport planning
process
• To determine the extent to which the present highway system is adequate
and to plan for new facilities
• To assess the adequacy of parking facilities and to plan for future

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Methods of O-D survey
1. Home interview survey
2. Road side interview survey
3. Tags on vehicles
4. Registration number plate survey
5. Postcard questionnaire survey
6. Internet Surveys
7. Phone Surveys
8. Cell Phone, and GPS Receiver
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Home Interview
This method is performed by other governmental organizations. It is
not normally done on a military installation unless it is near a large city
that is under review. It provides the most detailed data

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Roadside Interview
• This method requires advance publicity and a greater number of personnel.
Uniformed MPs should conduct the interview. Considerations should include:
• Interview 50 percent of vehicles during non peak hours.
• Interview 25 percent of drivers during peak hours.
• Insure stations are visible and safe. One interview should not take more than
40 seconds, and there should not be more than five (5)interviewers in a file
(one lane).
• Approximately 300 drivers can be interviewed per hour. Stations do not have
to be operated at the same time.
• A manual count of traffic is made by hour, direction and type of vehicle.By
doing this the sample can be expanded into a 24-hour analysis
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Tags on vehicles
• This is a limited study good for studying through trips.
• It is conducted by having all cars counted when they enter the installation.
• At stations just inside the entrance gates, stop vehicles and affix a piece of
colored tape (different for each station) to the car's front bumper.
• At exit gates of the installation, a tally of cars with each colored tape is
made.
• It provides a rough estimate of through trips on the installation.
• It's necessary for each installation entrance and exit to be manned during
this study.

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Registration number plate survey
• Driver lists are obtained from the vehicle registration form and each is
sent a questionnaire at his place of duty with a return date requested.

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Postcard questionnaire survey
• A prepaid post card with the questionnaire on it is distributed toall
drivers entering the installation during a given time. A traffic volume
count is made at the time the cards are distributed

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HYPOTHESIS TESTING AND MODEL EVALUATION
A number of hypotheses are formulated and tested statistically to evaluate the
goodness of fit of a linear model estimated with empirical data.
The basic steps of hypothesis testing are the following:
Step 1: Formulation of a null hypothesis (H0); for example, parameter value is equal
to the estimated value.
Step 2: Formulation of an alternative hypothesis (H1); for example, parameter value
is equal to zero or a value different from the estimated one.
Step 3: Identification of a test statistic distribution based on H0 ; usually Student's t or
F statistic is used depending on the test.
Step·4: Performance of comparison and rejection of H0 if test statistic has very low
probability of occurrence when H0 is true
• Above basic steps are applied to three common tests: single-parameter test, test of
a linear model as a whole, and test of equality of segmented linear models.
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References
1. Traffic engineering and transport planning by Dr. L R Kadiyali
2. “Principles of Transportation Engineering” Partha Chakraborthy, Animesh Das
3. Traffic Engineering by Roger Roess, Elena and McShane 3rd Edition
4. Traffic and Highway Engineering by Garber and Hoel 4th Edition
5. Transport Planning and Traffic Engineering- CA O'Flaherty
6. HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Martin Rogers
7. Traffic Engineering Design Principles and Practice Second edition Mike Slinn, Paul Matthews,
Peter Guest

1. IRC:108-2015 Guidelines For Traffic Forecast on Highways

2. IRC:SP19 2001 MANUAL FOR SURVEY, INVESTIGATION AND PREPARATION OF ROAD PROJECTS
3. IRC:102 1988 TRAFFIC STUDIES FOR PLANNING BYPASSES AROUND TOWNS

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