Chapter 1:

Data Storage

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 Chapter 1: Data Storage
1. Bits and Bytes
2. Boolean operations and gates
3. Flip-flop and main memory
4. Mass Storage
5. Binary numbering system
6. Hexadecimal notation
7. Storing integers
8. Storing Fractions
9. Storing text
10. Storing images
11. Storing sound

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 Bits and Bit Patterns

• Bit: Binary Digit (0 or 1)

• Bit Patterns are used to represent information

– Numbers
– Text characters
– Images
– Sound
– And others

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 Byte

• Byte is a unit of digital information that

most commonly consists of eight bits.
• Historically, the byte was the number of
bits used to encode a single character of
text in a computer and for this reason it is
the smallest addressable unit of memory in
many computer architectures.

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 Boolean Operations

• Boolean Operation: An operation that

manipulates one or more true/false values
• Specific operations
– AND
– OR
– XOR (exclusive or)
– NOT

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 Figure 1.1 The possible input and output
values of Boolean operations AND, OR,
and XOR (exclusive or)

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 Gates

• Gate: A device that computes a Boolean

operation
– Often implemented as (small) electronic
circuits
– Provide the building blocks from which
computers are constructed
– VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration): may contain
thousands of gates and perform computational operations such
as processors, large memory arrays and programmable logic
devices

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 Figure 1.2 A pictorial representation of AND,
OR, XOR, and NOT gates as well as their input
and output values

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 Examples for logic circuits
Fill in all possible combinations Complete its truth table:
for two inputs:

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 More examples for logic circuits

Draw a circuit for the following boolean expression:

Q = (A and NOT B) or (NOT A and B)

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 Flip-flops

• Flip-flop: A circuit built from gates that can

store one bit.
– One input line is used to set its stored value to 1
– One input line is used to set its stored value to 0
– While both input lines are 0, the most recently
stored value is preserved

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 Figure 1.3 A simple flip-flop circuit

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 Figure 1.4 Setting the output of a flip-
flop to 1

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 Figure 1.4 Setting the output of a flip-
flop to 1 (continued)

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 Figure 1.4 Setting the output of a flip-
flop to 1 (continued)

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 Figure 1.5 Another way of
constructing a flip-flop
An exercise for you

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 Main Memory Cells

• Cell: A unit of main memory (typically 8 bits

which is one byte)
– Most significant bit: the bit at the left (high-
order) end of the conceptual row of bits in a
memory cell
– Least significant bit: the bit at the right (low-
order) end of the conceptual row of bits in a
memory cell

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 Figure 1.7 The organization of a
byte-size memory cell

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 Main Memory Addresses

• Address: A “name” that uniquely identifies one

cell in the computer’s main memory
– The names are actually numbers.
– These numbers are assigned consecutively
starting at zero.
– Numbering the cells in this manner associates
an order with the memory cells.

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 Figure 1.8 Memory cells arranged by
address

Data

Address

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 Memory Terminology

• Random Access Memory (RAM):

Memory in which individual cells can be
easily accessed in any order
• Dynamic Memory (DRAM): RAM
composed of volatile memory

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 Measuring Memory Capacity
• Kilobyte: 210 bytes = 1024 bytes
– Example: 3 KB = 3 times1024 bytes

• Megabyte: 220 bytes = 1,048,576 bytes

– Example: 3 MB = 3 times 1,048,576 bytes

• Gigabyte: 230 bytes = 1,073,741,824 bytes

– Example: 3 GB = 3 times 1,073,741,824 bytes

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 Mass Storage

• Additional devices:
– Magnetic disks – Magnetic tape
– CDs – Flash drives
– DVDs – Solid-state disks
• Advantages over main memory
– Less volatility
– Larger storage capacities
– Low cost
– In many cases can be removed

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 Figure 1.9 A magnetic disk storage
system

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 A magnetic disk storage system

Information is stored in binary

format(0s and 1s) on a magnetic disk
using the magnetic polarity of iron
particles.

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 Figure 1.10 CD storage

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 CD storage

- Pits are areas that have been burned with laser on CD surface

- Land is the normal surface

- A "1" is coded with a change from land to pit, or from pit to land.
If there is no change, then it is a "0".

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 Flash Drives
• Flash Memory – circuits that
traps electrons in tiny silicon
dioxide chambers
• The floating gate stores the
electrical charge.

• Repeated erasing slowly damages the media

• Mass storage of choice for:
– Digital cameras
– Smartphones
• SD Cards provide GBs of storage

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 Solid State Drive (SSD)

• SSD is a storage device that uses integrated circuit assemblies as memory

to store data. It is composed of a control unit, a storage unit (NAND Flash
chip or DRAM chip), an optional cache (or buffer) unit, and an interface.

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 Representing Numeric Values

• Binary notation: Uses bits to represent a

number in base two
• Limitations of computer representations of
numeric values
– Overflow: occurs when a value is too big to
be represented
– Truncation: occurs when a value cannot be
represented accurately

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 The Binary System

The traditional decimal system is based

on powers of ten.

The Binary system is based on powers

of two.

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 Binary numbering with bit patterns
Decimal Binary Decimal Binary
0 0 11 1011
1 1 12 1100
2 10 13 1101
3 11 14 1110
4 100 15 1111
5 101 16 10000
6 110 17 10001
7 111 18 10010
8 1000 19 10011
9 1001 20 10100
10 1010

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 Figure 1.13 The base ten and binary
systems

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 Figure 1.14 Decoding the binary
representation 100101

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 Figure 1.15 An algorithm for finding the
binary representation of a positive integer

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 Figure 1.16 Applying the algorithm in
Figure 1.15 to obtain the binary
representation of thirteen

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 Figure 1.17 The binary addition facts

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 Logic circuit for binary addition (half
adder)

Truth table

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 Logic circuit for binary addition (Full
adder)

Truth table

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 Figure 1.18 Decoding the binary
representation 101.101

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 Hexadecimal Notation

• Hexadecimal notation: A shorthand

notation for long bit patterns
– Divides a pattern into groups of four bits each
– Represents each group by a single symbol
• Example: 10100011 becomes A3

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 Figure 1.6 The hexadecimal coding
system
An example for Hex usage (IPv6 address of a computer) :

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 The hexadecimal coding system
(examples)
Convert the bit pattern 001011010101 to
hexadecimal representation:
- 0010 =>2
- 1101 =>D
- 0101 =>5
Result: 2D5
Convert the hexadecimal number A7 into its binary
equivalent:
- A => 1010
- 7 => 0111
Result: 10100111
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 Storing Integers

• Two’s complement notation: The most

popular means of representing integer
values
• Excess notation: Another means of
representing integer values
• Both can suffer from overflow errors

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 Figure 1.19 Two’s complement
notation systems

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 Figure 1.20 Coding the value -6 in two’s
complement notation using four bits

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 Figure 1.21 Addition problems converted
to two’s complement notation

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 Figure 1.22 An excess eight
conversion table

• Write 4 digit like “1000” => this is 8

• We call it as “excess 8”
• Take a value to convert decimal,
for example “0100”
• 0100 => 4 in binary
• 4-8 = -4 in decimal

• We want to write 4 in Excess 8

notation.
• 4+8=12
• 12 => 1100 in binary

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 Figure 1.23 An excess notation system
using bit patterns of length three

• Write 3 digit like “100” => this is 4

• We call it as “excess 4”
• Take a value to convert decimal,
for example “110”
• 110 => 6 in binary
• 6-4 = 2 in decimal

• We want to write -3 in Excess 4

notation.
• -3+4=1
• 1 => 001 in binary

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 Storing Fractions

• Floating-point Notation: Consists of a

sign bit, a mantissa field, and an exponent
field.
• Related topics include
– Normalized form
– Truncation errors

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 Figure 1.24 Floating-point notation
components

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 Figure 1.25 Encoding the value 2 5⁄8

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 Encoding the value 2 5⁄8
Normalized form:

10.101 = 0.10101 x 22
Exponent

0.10101 x 22

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 Encoding the value 2 5⁄8

- 0 for positive numbers

- 1 for negative numbers

0 1 1 0

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 Floating-point notation – Examples

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 Floating-point notation – Examples

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 Representing Text with Pit Patterns
• Each character (letter, punctuation, etc.) is
assigned a unique bit pattern.
– ASCII: Uses patterns of 7-bits to represent
most symbols used in written English text
– ISO developed a number of 8 bit extensions to
ASCII, each designed to accommodate a
major language group
– Unicode: Uses patterns up to 21-bits to
represent the symbols used in languages
world wide, 16-bits for world’s commonly used
languages

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 ASCII

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 Figure 1.11 The message “Hello.” in
ASCII or UTF-8 encoding

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 Writing ASCII on Keybords

• Open a page to write text. For example, command prompt

or notepad.
• To insert an ASCII character, press and hold down ALT
while typing the character code.
• You must use the numeric keypad to type the numbers.
Make sure that the NUM LOCK key is on.

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 Representing Images

There are 2 techniques:

1. Bit map techniques
– Pixel: short for “picture
element”
– RGB
– Luminance and
chrominance
2. Vector techniques
(Mathematical definitions)
– Scalable
– TrueType and PostScript
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 Representing Sound

There are 2 techniques:

• Sampling techniques
– Used for high quality
recordings
– Records actual audio
• MIDI
– Used in music synthesizers
– Records “musical score”

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 Figure 1.12 The sound wave represented by the
sequence 0, 1.5, 2.0, 1.5, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 3.0, 0

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 End
of
Chapter

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