3- Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

Note: All the encircling membranes of membranous organoids has

the same structure as the plasma membrane.
ER occurs in almost all kinds of nucleated cells.
It a system of hollow network of branched and joined tubules .

Note: 1 ml (1 cm3) of
liver tissue contains
about 11 m2 of ER.

There are 2 patterns

of ER which are:

1) Rough (granular)
ER which covered by
ribosomes.

2) Smooth (agranular)
ER which lacks
ribosomes.
 3- Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (continue)
Note: both types may be connected in the same cell.
Also, one type may be changed to the other depending on the need of
the cell.

Functions of ER:
1- Helps molecules to move
from one cell to another
(both rough & mooth ER).
2- Makes proteins due to the
presence of ribosomes
(rough
ER).
3- Involved in the synthesis
of steroids (smooth ER).

4- Helps to regulate calcium

levels in muscle cells smooth
ER).

5- Helps with the break down

of toxic substances in the
cell (smooth ER).
 4- Golgi apparatus (Golgi body) (Golgi complex)
Camillo Golgi, nerve cells – 1898, 1906.

It was found in most

eukaryotic cells, but tends
to be more prominent
where there are proteins
are secreted.
The Golgi apparatus is
made up of:
1- A stack of flattened
elongated sacs called
cisternae.
The cristernae have:
i) A cis (immature) face
{directed towards the ER
and nucleus},
ii) The medial region {in the
middle} and

iii) The trans (mature) face

{directed towards the
plasma membrane.
 4- Golgi apparatus (Golgi body) (Golgi complex) {continue)

2- Vesicles: Which may be:

a) Large rounded vesicles
(outgoing transport
vesicles) which are
detached from the trans
face of cisternae. These
vesicles are filled with
protein.
b) Microvesicles (incoming
transport vesicles)
(transfering vesicles) which
are detached from rough
ER. They move towards the
cis face of cisternae. These
vesicles contain the newly
synthesized protein.

c) Intermediate vesicles
which are found in large
number close to the
periphery of sacs.
 Functions of Golgi apparatus:
1) Storge:
Proteins that formed by ribosomes
migrate as transfering vesicles
(microvesicles) to fuse with the
membrane of cis face where they are
collected, condensed and then enclosed by
membranes forming secretory granules.
These granules are then move to the
plasma membrane where they release
their contents by exocytosis.
2) Packing:
It forms lipoproteins by bounding both
lipids (which migrate from smooth ER) and
proteins (which migrate from rough ER)
inside a membrane. The formed
lipoprotein granules release from trans
face of Golgi apparatus.
3) Secretion:
Such as hormones (by endocrine glands),
enzymes (by exocrine glands), mucous (by
goblet cells).
4) It helps in the formation of the acrosome of the sperm which has a
secretory ability to penetrate the membrane of the ovum
 5- Lysosomes
They are saclike structure
surrounded by a single
membrane. IT contains
powerful digesting enzymes
such as acid phosphatase,
ribonuclease,
deoxyribonuclease … etc.
The number of them is
affected by different
physiological and pathological
changes.
Fasting and ageing decrease
their number.
Functions of lysosomes:
Lysosomes are responsible for digestion of biological compounds.
This digestion may be one of the following:
i) Intracellular digestion: This takes place inside the cytoplasm which
may be:
a) Exogenic origin:
They digest the taken substances by endocytosis in a process known as
heterophagy. The primary lysosomes fuse with endocytic vesicle to
form secondary lysosome or heterophagosome. The engulfed material
is then digested by the enzymes into small molecules.
b) Endogenic origin : Heterophagy Autophagy

They digest some part of the

cytoplasm e.g. mitochondria
by a process known as
autophagy. In autophagy, the
cytoplasmic structure is
digested by primary
lysosomes forming secondary
lysosome or autophagosome.
Resulting small molecules
from autophagy or
heterophagy can diffuse into
the cytoplasm. If digestion is
completed, residual bodies
are formed which may be go
out by exocytosis or may be
remain in the cell.
These remaining residuals may be represent an index of cell ageing.
ii) Extracellular digestion:

Some cells can discharge lysosomal enzymes outside the cell to destroy
some surrounding structures. This explains how the sperm can
penetrate the protecting coat of the ovum during fertilization.

iii) Autolysis: Heterophagy Autophagy

It is a process in which the

cell is self-destructed. When
cells approach death,
lysosomes rupture in the
surrounding cytoplasm
causing the digestion of the
whole cell. This action is not
accidental but it is regulated
by signals that scientists do
not fully understand.
 6- Peroxisomes (microbodies)
They contain enzymes involved in the degradation of fatty acids and
amino acids.
They also contain the enzyme catalase.
Structure of peroxisomes:
Plant cells have similar vesicles called gyloxisomes.
They are about the same size, or slightly larger than lysosomes.
Peroxisome function:
Peroxisomes contain enzymes that degrade fatty acids and amino
acids.
In doing so they produce hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).
H2O2 is very toxic because it is unstable and spontaneously degrades to
produce compounds called free radicals.
Free radicals are very reactive because they have unpaired electrons
and will react with a variety of cellular macromolecules and alter their
structure.
Fortunately peroxisomes contain the enzyme called catalase that
degrades hydrogen peroxide to the less dangerous oxygen and water.
catalase
()2H2O2 O2 + 2(H2O)
‫مع أرق تياتى وأمنياتى لكم جيعا بالتوفيق والتفوق‬

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