AIRCRAFT STRUCTURE

TOPIC 1.1
AIRFRAME STRUCTURE(GENERAL)
 INTRODUCTION
On completion of this topic you should be able to:
1.1.1 State Airworthiness requirements for structural strength

1.1.2 Define primary, secondary and tertiary structural classifications.

1.1.3 Describe fail safe, safe life and damage tolerance concepts.

1.1.4 Describe zonal and station identification systems.

1.1.5 Describe the following with regards to airframe structures:

Stress
Strain
Bending
Compression
Shear
Torsion
Tension
Hoop stress
Fatigue REVISION2 Cont. 2
 INTRODUCTION
On completion of this topic you should be able to:

1.1.6 Describe drain and ventilation provisions used in aircraft.

1.1.7 Describe provisions used in aircraft for system installations.

1.1.8 Describe provisions for lightning protection.

REVISION2 3
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 AIRCRAFT AIRWORTHINESS
Malaysian Civil Aviation Regulations (MCAR) 1996 , supersedes the obsolescent
Air Navigation Order 1953 (Peninsular Malaysia) and Colonial Air Navigation
Order 1961 (Sabah and Sarawak) together with their associated Regulations
with effect from 1 April 1996.

MCAR Regulation 30, introduces the concept

of the Certificate of Release to Service (CRS) in
relation to the certification of completion of
overhauls, repairs, replacements,
modification, mandatory inspections and
maintenance checks

Revision 1
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 AIRCRAFT AIRWORTHINESS

Regulation 28 (1)(b) the Certificate of Maintenance Review (CMR) is introduced in

relation to certification that the requirements of a maintenance schedule approved
by the DCA have been complied with.

Any aircraft issued with Certificate of

Airworthiness in any category must be
maintained in accordance with the
maintenance schedule approved by the DCA
and a technical log kept, regardless of the
purpose for which the aircraft is being flown.

Revision 1
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 CERTIFICATE OF COMPLIANCE

• Introduced to replace the Certificate of Compliance

(C of C) in respect of certification of the completion of
overhauls, repairs, replacement, modifications or
mandatory inspections.

•Also be used to certify the completion of maintenance

checks where the check is classified as a Scheduled
Maintenance Inspection (SMI).

Revision 1
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 AIRCRAFT AIRWORTHINESS
In MALAYSIA, aircraft are categorised in one of the following regs:

The categories for C of A as reflected in MCAR, Third Schedule, is as follows :-

CATEGORIES PURPOSES
Transport (Passenger) Any purpose.
Transport (Cargo) Any purpose other than the public transport of
passengers.
Aerial Work Any purpose other than public transport.
Private Any purpose other than public transport or aerial
work
Special Any purpose, other than public transport, specified
in the CofA but not including the carriage of
passengers unless expressly permitted.

Revision 1
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 AIRCRAFT AIRWORTHINESS
The C of A categories are operational categories and are not related to the TC
categories, which are design standard categories.

An aircraft type certificated in any of the following TC categories may be operated in any
of the CofA categories :
(a) for small aeroplanes (FAR/JAR Part 23) : normal, utility, acrobatic and commuter
categories
(b) for large aeroplanes (FAR/JAR Part 25) : transport category
(c) for small rotorcraft (FAR/JAR Part 27) : normal category
(d) for large rotorcraft (FAR/JAR Part29) : transport category
(e) for special class (JAR-VLA) : very light aeroplanes
(f) for special class (BCAR Section Q) : non rigid airship

Revision 1
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 AIRCRAFT AIRWORTHINESS
Structural Strength requirements of an aircraft or an aircraft
component, are developed in the initial design phase of the aircraft or
component, so they can withstand the operational stresses exerted on
them.

Structural requirements include but are not limited to :

Flight loads,
Flight Manoeuvring loads,
Control Surface and Systems loads, and
Ground loads.

Revision 1
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AIRCRAFT AIRWORTHINESS
These category regulations include but are not limited to:

General requirements,

Flight requirements,

Structure requirements,

Design and Construction requirements,

Powerplant requirements,

Equipment requirements, and

Operating Limitations and Information requirements.

Revision 1
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AIRCRAFT AIRWORTHINESS

Before an aircraft can take to the

skies, they are required to have an
authorised Type Certificate and a
Certificate of Airworthiness.

Procedural requirements for the issue

of Type Certificates and Certificates of
Airworthiness can be found in JAR-21.

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AIRCRAFT AIRWORTHINESS
Part of the certification process is satisfying guidelines laid
down in separate regulations for the category of aircraft type
being applied for.

These separate regulations include but are not limited to:

General requirements,
Flight requirements,
Structure requirements,
Design and Construction requirements,
Powerplant requirements,
Equipment requirements, and
Operating Limitations and Information requirements.

There are 5 separate aircraft categories.

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AIRCRAFT AIRWORTHINESS

JAR-22 is the regulation which

prescribes airworthiness standards for
the issue of type certificates for
Sailplanes and Powered Sailplanes.

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AIRCRAFT AIRWORTHINESS

JAR-23 is the regulation which

prescribes airworthiness standards for
the issue of type certificates for
Normal, Utility, Aerobatic and
Commuter Category Aeroplanes.

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AIRCRAFT AIRWORTHINESS

JAR-25 is the regulation which

prescribes airworthiness standards
for the issue of type certificates for
Large Aeroplanes.

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AIRCRAFT AIRWORTHINESS

JAR-27 is the regulation which

prescribes airworthiness standards
for the issue of type certificates for
Small Rotorcraft.

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AIRCRAFT AIRWORTHINESS

JAR-29 is the regulation which

prescribes airworthiness standards
for the issue of type certificates for
Large Rotorcraft.

REVISION2 17
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AIRCRAFT AIRWORTHINESS
Structural Strength requirements of an aircraft or an aircraft
component, are developed in the initial design phase of the aircraft or
component, so they can withstand the operational stresses exerted on
them.

Section 1 - Subpart C-Structures in each aircraft category regulation

contains the structural strength requirements that an aircraft or
component must adhere to, to obtain a Type Certificate and a
Certificate of Airworthiness.

These requirements include but are not limited to :

Flight loads,
Flight Manoeuvring loads,
Control Surface and Systems loads, and
Ground loads.

REVISION2 18
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 AIRCRAFT AIRWORTHINESS
In the Subpart C – Structure, strength requirements are specified in terms
of limit loads (maximum loads expected in service) and ultimate loads
(limit loads multiplied by prescribed factors of safety).

The structure must be able to support limit loads without detrimental

permanent deformation.

The structure must be able to support ultimate loads without failure for
at least 3 seconds.

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 STRUCTURAL CLASIFICATIONS
All aircraft structural components are classified into groups according to their
importance for the structural integrity of the aircraft.
There are 3 structural classifications :
Primary Structure - the portions of the aircraft structure which if it were to fail in
flight, landing or taking off, might cause structural collapse, loss of control, failure
of motive power, or serious injury to members of the aircrew. Eg. Engine mounts,
wing structure.

Secondary Structure - the portions of structure which would normally be

regarded primary but have reserve strength over design requirements that
appreciable weakening may be permitted without risk or failure.
Portions of the structure are also classified as secondary if their failure would not
seriously endanger the safety of the aircraft but may cause significant damage. Eg
wing tips and fairings.

Tertiary Structure - portions of the aircraft that would not endanger the safety of
the aircraft or cause significant damage if they were to fail. Eg loom and piping
attachment brackets.
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 FAIL SAFE
Aircraft structural engineers design aircraft to withstand structural loads for the
expected lifetime of the airframe.

To ensure that the aircraft has a full safe life, engineers include Fail Safe Structure
in the initial design.

That means ensuring the aircraft structure as a whole has sufficient strength to
prevent complete structural failure when a component of that structure has
failed.

A multi spar structure is an example of Fail Safe Structure – if one spar failed, the
adjacent spars will pick up the load.

A component that has been designed to withstand much more stress than it
actually does while in service, is also known as fail safe structure.

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 FAIL SAFE

Some Fail Safe components

are 2 part pieces - each part
is designed to carry the
required load that the
whole component is
required to carry. If one part
fails, the other has enough
strength to carry the load.

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 FAIL SAFE

King Air and Queen Air aircraft have

had a wing spar reinforcement
modification carried out, designed to
reduce the possibility of wing
separation.

REVISION2 23
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 SAFE LIFE
Aircraft structural integrity management
programs were initiated in response
to fatigue failures of various aircraft
in the 1950’s.

Typically a Safe Life / Fatigue Life was

established by conducting a fatigue
test to an aircraft design on either a
complete structure or major
components and applying a
timeframe for life to failure for the
fleet.

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 DAMAGE TOLERANCE
In the 1960s it became evident that the original philosophy based on safe life was
inadequate for structural components, because it did not account for :
• fatigue cracking arising from damage in the structure from manufacturing
processes or from in-service maintenance of the aircraft, or
• for different operating conditions for different aircraft.

Damage Tolerance is applied to the design and modification of aircraft and provides
guidance on the application of durability and damage tolerance requirements to
aircraft structures.

Aircraft designers and manufacturers use Damage Tolerance philosophies to

determine NDI schedules for airframe components.

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 DAMAGE TOLERANCE
Damage Tolerance in aircraft maintenance terms relates to the level of damage that
exists.

These include but not limited to :

- negligible damage is damage which is allowed to exist or stay as is – deemed not

to have any adverse affects on the aircrafts airworthiness.

- repairable damage is damage which can not remain as is - may have adverse
effects on aircraft airworthiness but is not deemed bad enough to warrant
replacement parts being installed.

- unrepairable damage is damage deemed to be too severe to leave as is or repair

to a serviceable state.

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 DATUM

• The ‘Datum’ is an imaginary vertical plane

• All horizontal measurements are taken from this point

REVISION2 27
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FUSELAGE STATION LINES (FS)

• Dimensions along the length of the fuselage

• Dimensions are aft of the datum reference point

• Vertical reference lines located along the horizontal

REVISION2 28
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 BUTTOCK LINES (BS)

• Horizontal reference lines

• Used to identify components on the right and left side of

the aircraft

• Parallel with centre line of fuselage (Buttock Line zero)

REVISION2 29
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 WATER LINES (WL)

• Horizontal Reference Planes

• Used to identify structure by vertical measurement
• Zero water line is the edge of the base reference plane
• Sometimes located below the fuselage - sometimes even below ground level
• Water lines are positive or negative depending on the location of water line
zero
REVISION2 30
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 WING STATIONS

• Measured left or right of fuselage Buttock Line zero

• Can be parallel to centre line or, for swept wing, 90 degrees to the rear spar

• Sometimes referred to as wing buttock lines. WS & WBL may be used

REVISION2 31
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CLOCK POSITIONS
• Another position referencing
system

• Often used by engineers or flight

crew

• Used to report faults on the

aircraft or engine

REVISION2 32
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 AIRCRAFT REFERENCE ZONES
AND POSITIONS
To help identify specific areas of the aircraft for
inspection purposes, the aircraft is broken up into
inspection zones.
Major Zone
Major Sub Zone
Zone

MAJOR ZONE

Identified by three digit numbers

Standard series is from 100 to 800

Example

300 indicates empennage, including fuselage aft of the rear pressure bulkhead

REVISION2 33
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 AIRCRAFT REFERENCE ZONES
AND POSITIONS

300 indicates empennage, including fuselage aft of the rear pressure bulkhead
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AIRCRAFT REFERENCE ZONES
AND POSITIONS

REVISION2 35
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 MAJOR SUB ZONES
Major zones are divided into major sub zones

Addition of a second non zero digit to major zone number

Example

major zone 300 is major sub zoned as:

310, fuselage aft of the pressure bulkhead

320, vertical stabiliser and rudder

330, left horizontal stabiliser and elevator

REVISION2 36
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 MAJOR SUB ZONES

Zone 300 is major sub zoned as 310, fuse aft of rear pressure bulkhead, 320, vert stab and
rudder 330, LH horiz stab and elevator andREVISION2
340 RH horiz stab and elevator. 37
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 ZONES
Major sub zones are divided into further sub zones

Addition of a third non zero digit to major sub zone number

Example

major sub zone 320 zoned as:

325, vertical stabiliser leading edge

321, vertical stabiliser auxiliary spar to front spar

329, rudder

REVISION2 38
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 MAJOR SUB ZONES

Major sub zone 320 zoned as 325, vert stab leading edge, 321, vert stab auxiliary
spar to front sparREVISION2
and 329, rudder. 39
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ZONES

REVISION2 40
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 STRESS
Stress is the internal force in a body that resists the tendency of an external force to
change its shape.

There are five main types of

stress:

Tension
Compression
Shear
Bending
Torsion

REVISION2 41
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 Unit M3
Aircraft Structures

TENSION
Tension describes forces that tend to pull an object apart. It is a stress produced in a body
by forces acting along the same line but in opposite directions.

Flexible steel cable used in aircraft for ties are designed to withstand tension loads.

REVISION2 42
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 COMPRESSION
Compression is the resistance to an external force that tries to push an object
together.

It is the resultant stress of 2 forces which act along the same line pushing against
each other.

REVISION2 43
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 COMPRESSION

An aircraft solid rivet is

installed by the application
of compression.

REVISION2 44
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 SHEAR
Shear stress is the force that when exerted on a body, it tries to slice or slide it
apart.

REVISION2 45
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 SHEAR
Aircraft clevis bolts are subjected to shear stress on an aircraft when the items they are
holding together have tension or compression loads applied to them.

REVISION2 46
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 TORSION
Torsion is the stress applied to a material when it is twisted.

It is a combination of tension and compression stresses.

REVISION2 47
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 TORSION

An F/A-18 Hornet
engine shaft which
has suffered
Torsional stress.

REVISION2 48
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 BENDING
The stress in an object caused by load being applied to one end while the other is
restrained.
Like Torsion, Bending stress is also a combination of tension and compression
stresses.

REVISION2 49
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 BENDING
Aircraft wings in flight are subjected to bending stress due to lift created - the top skin is
subjected to compression and the lower skin is subjected to tension.

However when the aircraft is on the ground, bending stress is reversed because of
wing sag – top skin tension and lower skin compression.
REVISION2 50
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 STRAIN
Strain is the deformation or physical change in a material that is caused by stress.

A control rod
which has a
significant physical
change (strain)
caused by bending
stress.

REVISION2 51
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 HOOP STRESS
Hoop Stress is stress in a pipe wall acting circumferentially in a plane
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the pipe produced by the pressure inside
the pipe.

REVISION2 52
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 HOOP STRESS
Cracks in car radiator hoses
caused by the pressure from
the heated water.

Cooking sausages are susceptible to

hoop stress as the pressure inside
the skin increases due to the heat.
Cracks along the longitudinal axis are
the resultant failure of the skin.

REVISION2 53
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HOOP STRESS

Pressurised aircraft
are subjected to hoop
stress when the
pressure inside the
fuselage increases,
the aircraft skin tries
to expand and split
along the longitudinal
axis.

REVISION2 54
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 FATIGUE
Fatigue is the condition
that exists in metal that
causes it to loose some
strength. It occurs when
metal is subjected to a
series of stress reversals
ie. Metal is bent back and
forth.

Aircraft wings are

susceptible to fatigue
due to different bending
stresses put on them in
the air as opposed to on
ground.

REVISION2 55
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 AIRCRAFT DRAINAGE

One of the biggest threats to the

structural integrity of an airframe is
corrosion.

REVISION2 56
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 AIRCRAFT DRAINAGE

Effective drainage of all structure is vital to prevent fluids from becoming

trapped in crevices and causing corrosion.
REVISION2 57
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 AIRCRAFT DRAINAGE

The entire lower fuselage

of pressurized aircraft is
drained by a system of
drain paths leading to
valved drain holes.

REVISION2 58
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 AIRCRAFT DRAINAGE
Smaller non-pressurized Drain Hole
aircraft, as well as non-
pressurized components on
pressurized aircraft (flaps,
ailerons etc), have small drilled
holes in the aircraft skin for
moisture drainage holes.

They also allow fresh air to

Fasteners
ventilate through the structure
to help dry out any residual
moisture.

REVISION2 59
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AIRCRAFT DRAINAGE

REVISION2 60
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 SYSTEM INSTALLATIONS
Provisions are made on aircraft which make a maintenance engineers job safer
and easier.

Quick Disconnect Valves

are a 2 piece fitting that
are installed in hydraulic
lines to prevent loss of
fluid when units are
removed.

REVISION2 61
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 SYSTEM INSTALLATIONS

Ground Power
Connection

REVISION2 62
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 SYSTEM INSTALLATIONS

Hydraulic Service
and
Air Start Connection

REVISION2 63
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 SYSTEM INSTALLATIONS

Toilet Service

REVISION2 64
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 SYSTEM INSTALLATIONS

Ground Power
Connection

REVISION2 65
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 SYSTEM INSTALLATIONS

Battery
Connection

REVISION2 66
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 SYSTEM INSTALLATIONS

Ground Locking Pins are

installed into holes
specifically placed in the
landing gear to prevent
retraction during ground
and maintenance
operations.

REVISION2 67
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 SYSTEM INSTALLATIONS
Aircraft manufactures provide jack pads on landing gear to allow jacking one wheel at a
time for quick maintenance or wheel change.

REVISION2 68
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SYSTEM INSTALLATIONS
An Axel Jack is used to raise the Main Landing Gear.

REVISION2 69
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 SYSTEM INSTALLATIONS

Anchor Nuts simplify the

process of installing and
removing doors and panels.

They are riveted to the

aircraft structure so a
spanner is not required to
hold the nut while the screw
is being installed.

REVISION2 70
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 SYSTEM INSTALLATIONS
Turnlock Fasteners are used on aircraft
for quick and easy removal of access
panels for inspection and servicing
purposes. They include :
Camloc fasteners,
Dzus fasteners, and
Airloc fasteners.

REVISION2 71
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 SYSTEM INSTALLATIONS
Electrical Connectors provide a great deal of flexibility when attaching electrical wiring
to various components. They are installed on wiring that is frequently disconnected.

REVISION2 72
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SYSTEM INSTALLATIONS

REVISION2 73
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 SYSTEM INSTALLATIONS

Avionics Racks are

provided on most
aircraft for ease of
fitment of avionics
equipment.

REVISION2 74
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 SYSTEM INSTALLATIONS

They provide for

exact positioning
and safe housing
of the equipment,
along with quick
removal and
installation.

REVISION2 75
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LIGHTNING STRIKE

Aircraft cannot avoid

being struck by
lightning.

They are metallic

objects, often flying
in storm conditions.

The adverse effects

of lightning strike
can be minimised.

REVISION2 76
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 LIGHTNING STRIKE
The charge must pass
through the structure of
the aircraft; and must
exit, minimising damage
to structure, electronic
equipment or human
occupants.

Bonding straps between

structural components is
essential.

REVISION2 77
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LIGHTNING STRIKE

Bonding straps:
• minimise lightning
damage where structure is
joined or hinged;
• supply ground path for
electrical equipment;

REVISION2 78
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 LIGHTNING STRIKE

Bonding straps are positioned

to:
• insulate passenger cabin, fuel
tanks, cargo areas and cockpit;
• divert charge around
electronic equipment;
• provide a low resistance path
for the electrical charge to exit.

REVISION2 79
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LIGHTNING STRIKE
Lightning diverter
strips mounted on
fibreglass nose
radomes are a type
of bonding.

If lightning hits the

radome, the diverter
strips conduct the
charge away from
the weather radar
and into the aircraft
structure.

REVISION2 80
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 LIGHTNING STRIKE
Lightning is unpredictable

It can enter and exit the

aircraft at any point.

Just like a bullet, the exit

damage is always greater than
the entry damage

An unscheduled inspection
after a lightning strike.

REVISION2 81
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 CONCLUSION
Now that you have completed this topic, you should be able to:

1.1.1 State Airworthiness requirements for structural strength

1.1.2 Define primary, secondary and tertiary structural classifications.

1.1.3 Describe fail safe, safe life and damage tolerance concepts.

1.1.4 Describe zonal and station identification systems.

1.1.5 Describe the following with regards to airframe structures:

Stress
Strain
Bending
Compression
Shear
Torsion
Tension
Hoop stress
Fatigue REVISION2 Cont. 82
 CONCLUSION
Now that you have completed this topic, you should be able to:

1.1.6 Describe drain and ventilation provisions used in aircraft.

1.1.7 Describe provisions used in aircraft for system installations.

1.1.8 Describe provisions for lightning protection.

REVISION2 83
 This concludes Topic 1.1
Airframe – General Concepts

Your next topic is Topic 1.2

Airframe - Construction Concepts
REVISION2 84