AIRCRAFT STRUCTURE

TOPIC 2.1 AIRFRAME STRUCTURES-AEROPLANE

FUSELAGE
 INTRODUCTION
On completion of this topic you should be able to:

2.1.1Describe fuselage construction and list methods of pressurisation sealing.

2.1.2 Describe characteristics and components of the following airframe structures:

Wing
Stabiliser
Pylon
Undercarriage attachments

2.1.3 Describe seat installation and cargo loading systems

2.1.4 Describe door construction, mechanisms, operation and safety devices.

2.1.5 Describe window and windscreen construction and mechanisms.

Note : characteristics and components of

wings will be covered in Topic 2.2
stabilisers will be covered in Topic 2.3and
pylons will be covered in Topic 2.5
REVISION2 2
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 FUSELAGE CONSTRUCTION

The fuselage is the body of the aircraft to which the other components are attached.

It must be strong and light weight.

There are 2 types of construction used in aircraft fuselage :

Truss

and

Stressed Skin.

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 TRUSS FUSELAGE
A Truss is a form of construction that is made from a number of members joined
together to form a rigid structure.

There are a number of different truss type setups, however only 2 of them are used in
aircraft construction :

Pratt

and

Warren

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• wooden longerons are PRATT TRUSS
the main longitudinal
structural members.

• wooden struts support

and hold longerons apart.

• 2 piano wire stays

(drag/anti drag wires) cross
each bay, or space
between struts.

• struts only carry

compressive loads, while
stays only carry tension
loads.
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 WARREN TRUSS
• constructed from
welded steel tubing

• longerons are
separated by diagonal
members that carry
both compressive and
tensile loads.

• both Pratt and

Warren truss aircraft
fuselages can be
covered with a non load
carrying skin to aid in
aerodynamic
smoothness.
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WARREN TRUSS

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 STRESSED SKIN FUSELAGE
As all Truss type fuselages started to be built with an aerodynamic skin,
designers developed the Formed Skin Fuselage where the structural loads
could be carried by the skin.

The 2 types of Formed Skin Fuselage used in aircraft manufacture are :

Monocoque

and

Semi-Monocoque.

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 MONOCOQUE
• the upper and lower skins are thin sheet aluminium alloy formed into compound curved
shapes with a drop hammer or a hydro press.

• the skins are riveted to the frames (formers) and bulkheads.

• the edges of the skins are

bent to form a lip that gives
the skin rigidity and

• then riveted to the former

rings which are pressed from
thin sheet aluminium in a
hydro press

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 MONOCOQUE
The monocoque construction is economical and has sufficient strength for relatively
low-stress areas.

It is used on non
pressurised aircraft with
low load capacity

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 MONOCOQUE

Edges of the skins are bent to form a lip that gives the skin rigidity and then riveted to the
former rings which are pressed from thin sheet aluminium in a hydro press.
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 SEMI-MONOCOQUE

 stronger than monocoque

construction.

 substructure of formers,
bulkheads, longerons and
stringers riveted to the stressed
skin.

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 SEMI-MONOCOQUE
 formers and bulkheads are made of
sheet metal in smaller aircraft while
bulkheads in larger aircraft are made
extruded aluminium.

 stringers are made of extruded

aluminium alloy, usually have a bulb
on one side for added strength to
resist bending loads.

 Longerons are made of extruded

aluminium and are heavier than
stringers to carry larger amounts of
structural load.

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 SEMI-MONOCOQUE
Fuselages are manufactured in sections in separate Jig’s

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SEMI-MONOCOQUE

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SEMI-MONOCOQUE

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 LIGHT AIRCRAFT DOORS

Light aircraft doors main

framework is a formed sheet-metal
structure which is riveted to the
sheet-metal outer skin.

Light aircraft doors are constructed

of the same materials used for the
other major components

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 LIGHT AIRCRAFT DOORS

Inside the door structure are

door latching and locking
mechanisms.

Upper portion of the door

often contains a window
made of a clear plastic similar
to other cabin windows.

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 PRESSURIZED ENTRY AND CARGO DOORS

The door cut for a

pressurized aircraft needs
to be reinforced to help
prevent fatigue failures
from pressurization loads.

Doors for pressurized aircraft must also be much stronger than a door for
a light aircraft.
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PRESSURIZED ENTRY AND CARGO DOORS

They consist of a framework of

aluminium alloy which is riveted
to a heavy outer skin formed to
the contour of the fuselage.

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PRESSURIZED ENTRY DOORS
The entry door is designed to act
as a plug to prevent it opening,
the pressure in the cabin seats
the door in place.

Doors are held in place with

locking pins at the sides, top and
bottom of the door.

The door must be larger than

the opening and must be
inside the aircraft with
pressure pushing outward.

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 DOOR OPENING – SMALL AIRCRAFT

Smaller aircraft can have

one piece doors that hinge
off the leading edge and
swing outward and
forward.

Some types have a one

piece door that hinges off
the top edge and swings
out and up.

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 DOOR OPENING – TWO PIECE DOOR

A two-piece door has a top

half, which is hinged at the top
of the door frame. The top
half is opened first and locked
into position. The bottom half
is lowered and becomes
entrance stairs.

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DOOR OPENING – STAIR TYPE DOOR

Stair-type
doors are
designed as
one-piece or
two-piece
doors, and are
found on both
pressurized
and non-
pressurized
aircraft.

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 OUTWARD OPENING DOOR

At the top and the bottom

edges of the outward
opening door, are hinged
gates that make it possible to
decrease the height of the
door so it can be swung
outward through the door
opening.

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 OUTWARD OPENING DOOR
When operating the door handle it will lift the door clear of the
locking stops and release the door out of the guide tracks.

Bearing roller on door runs in the Stops on the door will engage behind
Guide track on door frame the stops on the door frame.

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 OUTWARD OPENING DOOR

Another type of the

outward opening door, is
one that pivots forward
instead of swinging out.

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 INWARD OPENING DOOR

Another type of entrance door

Boeing 767 door
being used in airliners is a vertical
slides up inside
retracting door. the ceiling.

It is either counter-balanced or
spring loaded for easy operation.

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 CARGO DOORS

Cargo Doors on pressurized

aircraft are also required to have
a positive lock when closed.

They are locked by a series of

hooks on the bottom edge and
locking pins up the sides of the
door which are activated off the
open/close handle.

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 CARGO DOORS
Cargo Doors on smaller
aircraft do not require the
same locking requirements
as do larger pressurized
aircraft.

They are usually a hinged

outward swinging door, with
a rubber seal around the Cargo Doors
mating surface.

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 BLADE SEAL
Once a door is closed and the aircraft is pressurised, a blade seal contacts the door
and completes the seal.

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BLADE SEAL

All openings on Aircraft

have to be sealed.
Passenger and cargo
doors on pressurised
Aircraft are often sealed
with rubber blade seals.

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 SEALING PRESSURE BULKHEADS – CONTROL
CABLES
Door openings in a pressurised aircraft are not the only sealing required.

Holes for control cables and electrical looms which penetrate a pressure vessel must also
be sealed.
Pressure seals are used
at each location in which
a control cable
penetrates the structure
of a pressure vessel.
These seals are filled
with grease, which
allows the cable to move
freely, yet prevent the
leaking of pressurised
air.

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SEALING PRESSURE BULKHEADS –
ELECTRICAL WIRES
Electrical wiring is wrapped in
tape, which is then filled with
sealant. This is called a Fairlead.

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SEALING PRESSURE BULKHEADS –
ELECTRICAL WIRES

Sealant is applied to
both sides of the
fairlead including
covering fasteners.

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SEALING PRESSURE BULKHEADS –
ELECTRICAL WIRES

Electrical connectors
are also used to pass
wiring through
pressure bulkheads.

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SEALING AIRCRAFT DRAINS
Aircraft drains have provisions for pressure sealing.

This one has a

rubber valve – when
aircraft is
pressurized,
pressure pushes
valve down to form a
seal.

Other types have a

spring loaded
flapper valve.

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SEALING PRESSURE SKINS
Aircraft pressure cells are assembled with sealing
compound to ensure a leak free fuselage.

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 SEALING PRESSURE SKINS

All skin joints in

aircraft pressure
cells are to be sealed
along the seams and
between the skins to
prevent leaks.

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 SEALING PRESSURE SKINS

Windows and
windscreens are also
fitted with sealant.

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 SEALING PRESSURE SKINS
Where components
are mounted
through pressure
skins, sealant is to
be applied including
covering screws /
bolts.

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SEALING PRESSURE SKINS
Repairs are to be fitted with sealant.

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 WINDOWS
Two types of transparent plastics are used for aircraft windows and
windshields.

Cellulose Acetate

and

Acrylic

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 CELLULOSE ACETATE
Cellulose acetate was primarily used in the past.

It is dimensionally unstable and turns yellow after it has been installed for a period
of time.

For this reason it is rarely used today, and is not considered an acceptable
substitute for acrylic.

It can be recognised by :
Applying a small amount of acetone on it – it will soften without changing colour

Or

When it burns, it has a sputtering flame and gives off a dark smoke with an
unpleasant odour.

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 ACRYLIC
Acrylic is a synthetic resin.

It can be recognised by :
Applying a small amount of acetone on it – it will turn white but will not soften,

Or

When it burns, it has a steady clear flame without smoke, and has a somewhat
pleasant smell.

Thin acrylic plastics may be cold bent into a single curvature if the bending radius is
at least 180 times the material thickness.

REVISION2 45
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 WINDOWS
Acrylic plastics become soft and pliable when heated, allowing them to
be moulded to almost any shape.

They are heated with infrared heat lamps or in a forced air oven.

Windscreens are
generally formed in a
mould similar to this
mould for a KTX-2
fighter.

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 WINDOWS
Hack Saws, Band Saws and Jig Saws are recommended for trimming windows and
windscreens.

For dimensional accuracy, saw to within 1/16” of the cut line and then sand it down to the
correct size.

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WINDOWS

It is necessary to remove the heat

when drilling plastics.

Water soluble cutting oil is the

preferred lubricant as it does not
attack the plastic.

The twist drill needs to be free from

nicks and burrs.

Drills should have an included angle

of 150°.

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 WINDOWS
The Unibit or Step drill is good for cutting small holes in windshields and windows.

It is available in sizes ranging between 1/8” to 7/8”, and it allows for holes free from
stress cracks around the edges

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 WINDOWS
Damaged windows and windshields are usually replaced rather than repaired, because
parts are readily available, and repairs can be quite labour intensive.

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 WINDOWS
Temporary repairs are carried out on light aircraft components to return them to
a good enough condition, so as the aircraft can be flown until the component can
be replaced or repaired correctly.

REVISION2 51
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 WINDOWS
Scratches in acrylic plastics within certain limitations, can be removed by;

- sanding scratched area in a circular motion, with 320 or 400 grit abrasive paper
wrapped around a felt or rubber pad,
- use light pressure and a mild soap solution as lubricant,
- rinse with running water and go to progressively finer paper and continue to sand
lightly,
- continue procedure (using progressively finer paper) until sanding marks
removed, and
- buff with a rubbing compound to remove all traces of sanding.

The thickness of the plastic should not be reduced to the point that the window would be
weakened.

The Maintenance Manuals will specify the minium allowable material thickness.
REVISION2 52
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 WINDOWS

Do not sand any

portion of a
windshield that
could adversely
affect its optical
properties and
distort the pilots
vision.

REVISION2 53
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WINDOWS
Acrylic windows and
windscreens can
handle loads equal to
the aircraft skin.

They are constructed in

a way to prevent them
from being opened
during flight
and withstand the
cyclic pressurisation
loads.

REVISION2 54
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WINDOWS
Windows usually consist of 4 items :

Window ring pan for

attaching window to
fuselage.

Outer pane for carrying

load.

Window seal for

holding window panes
apart.

The inner pane is

designed to protect
the external load
carrying outer pane.

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WINDOWS

Ventilation Slot in the

window seal allows for
equal pressure levels
between the window
panes and the cabin.

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WINDOW CUTOUTS

The window seal is a one piece

seal, so extreme care should be
taken when installing, inspecting
or maintaining these areas.

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LANDING GEAR - CONVENTIONAL
Older aircraft use a conventional gear arrangement which consists of 2
main wheels attached to the airframe forward of the C of G, with a small
tail-skid or wheel at the back providing the 3rd support.
Tail wheel keeps the propeller further above the ground.

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 LANDING GEAR
The drawback of the C of G being behind the point of contact of the wheels,
is that it is quite difficult to control while rolling on the ground.

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 TRICYCLE LANDING GEAR
The greater availability of hard surfaced runways, and the demand for easy to handle
aircraft on the ground, brought about the introduction of the Tricycle landing gear.

This type consists of a wheel

on the front of the aircraft
and 2 wheels behind the C of
G.

The natural tendency for a

nose wheel airplane is to
move straight down the
runway, rather than
attempting to spin around.

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 LANDING GEAR
Landing gear can be retractable or fixed.

The reason that retractable landing gear was introduced, was to eliminate Parasite
or Aerodynamic drag.

Parasite drag is mostly felt by

high speed/velocity aircraft.

Low speed aircraft stick with

light weight fixed L/Gear.

High speed aircraft have

retractable L/Gear.

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FIXED LANDING GEAR ATTACHMENT

Fixed landing gear is

generally only found on
light aircraft.

There are many forms.

It can be strut braced and

bolted to the fuselage.

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FIXED LANDING GEAR ATTACHMENT
Another form of strut braced undercarriage.

REVISION2 63
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FIXED LANDING GEAR ATTACHMENT

It can be attached with flat

springs for suspension.

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FIXED LANDING GEAR ATTACHMENT

Wing mounted fixed

undercarriage is usually
bolted to the wing main
spar by a solid mount.

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FIXED LANDING GEAR ATTACHMENT

REVISION2 66
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LANDING GEAR ATTACHMENT

This type of landing gear usually has an oleo strut for landing.
REVISION2 67
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OLEO STRUT

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 WING STOWAGE
Retractable L/Gear can be stowed into the wings.

REVISION2 69
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 FUSELAGE STOWAGE
Retractable landing gear can also be stowed into the fuselage.

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RETRACTABLE LANDING GEAR
ATTACHMENT

Whether retractable
landing gear is attached to
the fuselage or the wings,
it will be attached with a
trunnion.
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 RETRACTION OPERATION

The undercarriage
swivels on the
trunnion which
allows it to be
stowed or
extended.

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 RETRACTION OPERATION
Undercarriage retraction systems are actuated by hydraulics or electrics, and
assisted by mechanical linkages.

Whether the undercarriage

system is small or large, it will
have a compression resistant
shock absorbing system, to aid in
smooth landing.

The most common type of shock

absorbing component used in
undercarriage systems is the
Oleo Strut.

REVISION2 73
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RETRACTABLE LANDING GEAR
ATTACHMENT
Trunnion Mounts

Wing stowed landing gear

is attached to the wing
spars via trunnion mounts
with high strength
fasteners.

This allows the landing

loads to transfer from the
undercarriage to the wing
spars.

REVISION2 74
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 RETRACTABLE LANDING GEAR
Trunnion BearingATTACHMENT

The undercarriage swings

up (retracts) around the
trunnion bearings which are
located in the trunnion
mount.

REVISION2 75
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LANDING GEAR ATTACHMENT

Some MLG retract about the

trunnion parallel to the
longitudinal axis of the
aircraft and is stowed inside
the pylon / nacelle.

REVISION2 76
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 LANDING
Front Spar
GEAR
Rear Spar
ATTACHMENT
Trunnion

Upper Member

Retraction Downlocck Spring Box

Actuator

Lock Link
Drag Stay

Main Gear Leg Outer

Cylinder
FWD
REVISION2 77
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LANDING GEAR ATTACHMENT

Large aircraft MLG

retract about the
trunnion
perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis and
stow inside the wing
and fuselage.

REVISION2 78
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 LANDING GEAR
Actuator
ATTACHMENT

Trunnion

Drag Strut

Shock Strut

Side Strut

LH MLG – View looking FWD

REVISION2 79
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 LANDING GEAR
Actuator
ATTACHMENT
Trunnion

Actuator Arm Fitting

Drag Strut

Shock Strut

LH View
REVISION2 80
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 LANDING GEAR ATTACHMENT

Very large
aircraft have a
centreline
undercarriage to
help carry and
spread the
aircraft weight.

REVISION2 81
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LANDING GEAR ATTACHMENT

Smaller aircraft can also

have landing gear that
retracts up perpendicular
to the longitudinal axis.

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LANDING GEAR ATTACHMENT

Nose landing gear trunnions attach to the side walls of the NLG well and
retract along REVISION2
the longitudinal axis. 83
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 WATER OPERATIONS
Where airstrips are not available, aircraft that can land and take off on
water are of great value.

Seaplanes can have a boat type hull fuselage with supporting wing floats.
REVISION2 84
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 WATER OPERATIONS
Or they can have large floats where wheels would other wise be.

REVISION2 85
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WATER OPERATIONS

REVISION2 86
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 WATER OPERATIONS

Amphibian
aircraft are
fitted with
retractable
L/Gear.

REVISION2 87
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 SKIES

Attaching skis to
an aircraft
further extends
its capability by
allowing the
pilot to take off
and land on
snow and ice.

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 RETRACTABLE SKIES

Some aircraft are

fitted with retractable
skies to allow for
operations between
land and snow/ice.

REVISION2 89
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AIRCRAFT SEATS

• Passenger seats are

located in seat tracks

• Allows for ease of

removal or re-
configuration

• Refer to maintenance
manual for specific
aircraft

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PASSENGER SEATS

Aircraft passenger seats are

manufactured to a minium
strength standard known as
the16G standard which requires
cabin-equipment, materials and
seats to be able to withstand a
crash impact 16 times the force
of gravity.

REVISION2 91
SEATS
• C shaped channel with
circular cut outs

• Track secured to aircraft floor

beams

• Circular seat pads fit into the

cut outs, then seat assembly
is pushed forward by half a
hole to allow locking barrel
to locate in track cut-out.

• Over-tightening of the Jam

Nut may deform the seat
tracks.

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 AIRCREW SEAT TRACK

Aircrew seat tracks are shaped differently to cabin tracks to allow the seat to
move forward and aft on a roller system.
REVISION2 93
 CARGO LOADING SYSTEMS
Palletised cargo systems are located in the forward and rear cargo holds.

Containers are lifted by machinery to the cargo doors, then the aircraft
loading system takes over.

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 CARGO LOADING SYSTEMS

Drive wheels

REVISION2 96
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CARGO LOADING SYSTEMS

Ball mats allow pallet

manoeuvring from
machinery, into aircraft.

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B727 FREIGHTER BALL MAT

REVISION2 98
CARGO RESTRAINT HARDWARE
Sill stops prevent cargo pallets from falling out and also moving in
flight. They are situated at the door sill.

Pallet base

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CARGO GUIDES
Lateral guides are positioned
each side of the ball transfer
mat and provide lateral control
for pallets being moved in or
out.

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CARGO LOADING CONTROL
There is an inside and outside control panel with certain
switches to control stops, guides and cargo drive units.

REVISION2 101
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CARGO LOADING CONTROL

REVISION2 102
☻
 CONCLUSION
Now that you have completed this topic, you should be able to:

2.1.1 Describe fuselage construction and list methods of pressurisation sealing.

2.1.2 Describe characteristics and components of the following airframe structures:

Wing
Stabiliser
Pylon
Undercarriage attachments

2.1.3 Describe seat installation and cargo loading systems

2.1.4 Describe door construction, mechanisms, operation and safety devices.

2.1.5 Describe window and windscreen construction and mechanisms.

Note : characteristics and components of

wings will be covered in Topic 2.2
stabilisers will be covered in Topic 2.3 and
REVISION2 103
pylons will be covered in Topic 2.5 ☻
 This concludes Topic 2.1
Airframe Structure(aeroplane) - Fuselage

Your next topic is Topic 2.2

Airframe - Wings

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