NERVOUS SYSTEM

NERVOUS SYSTEM
•The nervous system can be divided into the central nervous
system and the peripheral nervous system.
•The central nervous system (CNS), consists of the brain and
spinal cord.
•The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of all the
nerves and ganglia outside the brain and spinal cord.
Spinal Cord
• Extends from the
foramen magnum
to the 2nd lumbar
vertebra
• Protected by
vertebral column
• Spinal nerves
allow movement
• If damaged
paralysis can occur
Gray Matter and White Matter
Gray Matter:
center of spinal cord
looks like letter H or a butterfly
White Matter:
Outer layer of spinal cord
contains myelinated fibers
White Matter
in Spinal Cord
Located in the white matter of
the CNS are three columns:
dorsal, ventral, and lateral.
Columns:
contain ascending and
descending tracts.
• Ascending tracts: axons that
conduct action potentials
toward the brain
• Descending tracts: axons
that conduct action
potentials away from the
brain
Gray Matter in Spinal Cord
The gray matter has a letter H shape with horns.
Posterior horns: contain axons which synapse
with interneurons
Anterior horns: contain somatic neurons
Lateral horns: contain autonomic neurons
Central canal: fluid filled space in center of cord
Reflexes
•A reflex is an involuntary reaction in response to a stimulus
applied to the periphery and transmitted to the CNS.
•Reflexes allow a person to react to stimuli more quickly
than is possible if conscious thought is involved.
•Most reflexes occur in the spinal cord or brainstem rather
than in the higher brain centers.
•A reflex arc is the neuronal pathway by which a reflex
occurs and has five basic components.
Reflex Arc Components
•A sensory receptor
•A sensory neuron
•Interneurons, which are neurons located between and
communicating with two other neurons
•A motor neuron
•An effector organ (muscles or glands).
•Note: The simplest reflex arcs do not involve interneurons.
Reflexes
•The simplest reflex is the stretch reflex.
•A stretch reflex occurs when muscles contract in
response to a stretching force applied to them.
•The knee-jerk reflex, or patellar reflex is a classic
example of a stretch reflex.
Reflexes
•The withdrawal reflex,
or flexor reflex, is to
remove a limb or
another body part from
a painful stimulus.
•The sensory receptors
are pain receptors, and
stimulation of these
receptors initiates the
reflex.
Spinal Nerves
•Arise along spinal cord from union of dorsal roots and
ventral roots.
•Contain axons of sensory and somatic motor neurons.
•Located between vertebra.
•Categorized by region of vertebral column from which it
emerges (C for cervical).
•31 pairs organized in 3 plexuses.
Cervical Plexus
•Spinal nerves C1-4
•Innervates muscles
attached to hyoid bone and
skin of neck and back of
head.
•Contains the phrenic
nerve which innervates
diaphragm.

Brachial Plexus
•Originates from spinal
nerves C5-T1.
•Supply nerves to the
upper limbs, shoulders,
hand.

Lumbosacral Plexus
•Originates from spinal
nerves L1 to S4.
•Supplies nerves lower
limbs.
Dermatome
•The nerves arising from each region of the spinal cord and
vertebral column supply specific regions of the body.
•A dermatome is the area of skin supplied with sensory
innervation by a pair of spinal nerves.
•Each of the spinal nerves except C1 has a specific cutaneous
sensory distribution.
The Brain
The four major regions of the brain are:
•the brainstem
•the cerebellum
•the diencephalon
•the cerebrum
 Brain stem components
Components Location Function Other
regulates heart rate, blood vessel
pyramids: involved in
diameter, breathing, swallowing,
Medulla oblongata continuous with spinal cord conscious control of
vomiting, hiccupping, coughing,
skeletal muscle
sneezing, balance
breathing, chewing, salivation,
above medulla, bridge
swallowing, relay station between
Pons between cerebrum and
cerebrum and cerebellum
cerebellum
the dorsal part has the
four colliculi which are
coordinated eye movement, pupil
Midbrain above pons involved in visual and
diameter, turning head toward noise
auditory reflexes

regulates cyclical motor function,

scattered throughout respiration, walking, chewing, arousing
Reticular Formation
brainstem and maintaining consciousness,
regulates sleep-wake cycle
Cerebellum
•Location: attached to the brainstem by the cerebellar peduncles
•Characteristics: means “little brain”, cortex is composed of gyri,
sulci, gray matter.
•Functions:
◦ controls balance
◦ muscle tone
◦ coordination of fine motor function
 Diencephalon
Components Location Characteristics Function
• regulates sensory input traveling from the
spinal cord and brainstem to the cerebral
largest portion of
Thalamus cortex
diencephalon
• influences moods and detects pain

• emotional and visceral response to odors

above thalamus • contains the pineal gland which is an
Epithalamus Consist a few small nuclei endocrine gland that plays a role in
controlling some long-term cycles that are
influenced by the light-dark cycle
controls pituitary gland • controls homeostasis, body temp, thirst,
Hypothalamus below thalamus and is connected to it by hunger, fear, rage, sexual emotions
infundibulum
Cerebrum Characteristics
Largest portion of brain
Divisions:
•Right hemisphere
•Left hemisphere

separated by
longitudinal fissure
Lobes: frontal, parietal,
occipital, temporal, insula
(fifth lobe)
Cerebrum Components
•Cerebral Cortex
•Location:
• surface of cerebrum, composed of gray matter
•Function:
• controls thinking, communicating
• remembering, understanding, and initiates voluntary
movements
 Cerebrum Surface Features
Longitudinal fissure:
divides cerebrum into left and
right hemispheres
Gyri:
folds on cerebral cortex that
increase surface area
Sulci:
shallow indentations
Fissure:
deep indentations
Cerebral Hemispheres
•Left hemisphere:
• controls right side of body
• responsible for math, analytic, and speech
•Right hemisphere:
• controls left side of body
• responsible for music, art, abstract ideas
•Corpus callosum:
• connection between the two hemispheres
Lobes of the Brain
LOBE LOCATION FUNCTION

Occipital lobe posterior vision

Temporal lobe lateral hearing, smell, memory

controls voluntary motor functions, aggression,

Frontal lobe anterior
moods, smell

evaluates sensory input such as touch, pain,

Parietal lobe top
pressure, temperature, taste
Sensory Functions
•CNS constantly receives sensory input
•We are unaware of most sensory input
•Sensory input is vital of our survival and normal
functions
Ascending Tracts
•Ascending pathways are sensory tracts carrying impulses up
the spinal cord to specific areas of the brain.
•Each tract is involved with a limited type of sensory input,
such as pain, temperature, touch, position, or pressure.
•Tracts are usually given composite names that indicate their
origin and termination.
Ascending Tracts
•The names of ascending tracts usually begin with the prefix
spino-, indicating that they begin in the spinal cord, such as
the spinothalamic.
•Sensory tracts typically cross from one side of the body in
the spinal cord or brainstem to the other side of the body.
•The left side of the brain receives sensory input from the
right side of the body, and vice versa.
Ascending Spinal Cord Tracts
Sensory Areas of Cerebral Cortex
•Primary sensory areas:
• where ascending tracts project
• where sensations are perceived
•Primary somatosensory cortex:
• general sensory area
• in parietal lobe
• sensory input such as pain, pressure, temp.
Somatic Motor Functions
•Somatic motor neurons innervate skeletal muscles.
•The somatic motor system is responsible for:
• maintaining the body’s posture and balance
• moving the trunk, head, limbs, tongue, and eyes
• communicating through facial expressions and speech
Somatic Motor Functions
•Reflexes mediated through the spinal cord and brainstem
are responsible for some body movements that are
involuntary.
•Voluntary movements are consciously activated to achieve
a specific goal, such as walking or typing.
•Voluntary movements result from the stimulation of neural
circuits that consist of two motor neurons: upper and lower
motor neurons.
Somatic Motor Functions
•Upper motor neurons have cell bodies in the cerebral
cortex and project down the spinal cord to synapse with
lower motor neurons.
•Lower motor neurons have cell bodies in the anterior horn
of the spinal cord gray matter or in cranial nerve nuclei.
•The axons of lower motor neurons leave the central
nervous system and extend through spinal or cranial nerves
to skeletal muscles.
Motor Areas of Cerebral Cortex
•Primary motor cortex:
• frontal lobe
• control voluntary motor movement
•Premotor area:
• frontal lobe
• where motor functions are organized before initiation
•Prefrontal area:
• motivation and foresight to plan and initiate movement
Sensory and Motor Areas of the
Cerebral Cortex
Descending Tracts
•Descending tracts are motor tracts carrying impulses down the
spinal cord, either terminating there or in the brainstem.
•The corticospinal tracts are considered direct because they extend
directly from upper motor neurons in the cerebral cortex to lower
motor neurons in the spinal cord.
•Some tracts are considered indirect because they originate in the
brainstem but are indirectly controlled by the cerebral cortex, basal
nuclei, and cerebellum.
Descending Tracts
•Tracts in the lateral columns are most important in
controlling goal-directed limb movements, such as reaching
and manipulating.
•Tracts in the ventral columns, such as the reticulospinal
tract, are most important for maintaining posture, balance,
and limb position through their control of neck, trunk, and
proximal limb muscles.
Descending Tracts
•Crossover of axons in the brainstem or spinal cord to the
opposite side of the body is typical of descending pathways.
•The left side of the brain controls skeletal muscles on the
right side of the body, and vice versa.
Basal Nuclei
Group of functionally related nuclei
Plan, organize, coordinate motor movements and posture
Corpus striatum:
◦ deep in cerebrum
Substantia nigra:
◦ in midbrain
Speech
•Mainly in left hemisphere
•Sensory speech (Wernicke’s area):
• parietal lobe
• where words are heard and comprehended
•Motor speech (Broca’s area):
• frontal lobe
• where words are formulated
Brain Waves and Consciousness
•Used to diagnose and determine treatment for brain
disorders
•Electroencephalogram (EEG):
•Electrodes are placed on scalp to record brain’s electrical
activity.
Brain Waves
Alpha waves:
◦ person is awake in quiet state

Beta waves:
◦ intense mental activity

Delta waves:
◦ deep sleep

Theta waves:
◦ in children
◦ In adults; experiencing frustration
Memory
•Working memory occurs when the brain briefly stores
information required for an immediate performance of a
task. It lasts only a few seconds to minutes.
•Short-term memory lasts longer than working memory and
can be retained for a few minutes to a few days.
Memory
•Short-term memory is transferred to long-term memory, where it
may be stored for only a few minutes or become permanent, by
consolidation.
•Consolidation is a gradual process involving the formation of new
and stronger synaptic connections.
•The length of time memory is stored may depend on how often it is
retrieved and used.
Memory
•Declarative memory, or explicit memory, involves the
retention of facts, such as names, dates, and places, as well
as related emotional undertones.
•Procedural memory, or reflexive memory, involves the
development of motor skills, such as riding a bicycle
Limbic System and Emotions
•A major source of sensory input to the limbic system are the
olfactory nerves.
•The limbic system is connected to, and functionally
associated with, the hypothalamus.
•Lesions in the limbic system can result in voracious appetite,
increased (often perverse) sexual activity, and docility
(including loss of normal fear and anger responses).
Meninges
•The meninges are three connective tissue layers that surround the
brain and spinal cord.
•The outermost (most superficial) meningeal layer is the dura mater,
which is the toughest of all the meninges.
•The dura mater forms two layers around the brain and only one layer
around the spinal cord.
•The second meningeal membrane is the very thin, wispy arachnoid
mater.
Meninges
•The space between the dura mater and the arachnoid
mater is the subdural space, which is normally only a
potential space containing a very small amount of serous
fluid.
•The third meningeal membrane, the pia mater, is very
tightly bound to the surface of the brain and spinal cord.
Meninges
•Between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater is the
subarachnoid space, which is filled with cerebrospinal fluid
and contains blood vessels.
Ventricles
•The CNS contains fluid-filled cavities, called ventricles.
•Each cerebral hemisphere contains a relatively large cavity
called the lateral ventricle.
•The third ventricle is a smaller, midline cavity located in the
center of the diencephalon between the two halves of the
thalamus and connected by foramina (holes) to the lateral
ventricles.
Ventricles
•The fourth ventricle is located at the base of the
cerebellum and connected to the third ventricle by a narrow
canal, called the cerebral aqueduct.
•The fourth ventricle is continuous with the central canal of
the spinal cord.
•The fourth ventricle also opens into the subarachnoid space
through foramina in its walls and roof.
Ventricles
Cerebrospinal Fluid
•Cerebrospinal Fluid Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) bathes the
brain and spinal cord, providing a protective cushion around
the CNS.
•The ependymal cells located in the choroid plexuses of the
ventricles produce the CSF.
•CSF fills the brain ventricles, the central canal of the spinal
cord, and the subarachnoid space.
Cerebrospinal Fluid
•The CSF flows from the lateral ventricles into the third
ventricle and then through the cerebral aqueduct into the
fourth ventricle.
•A small amount of CSF enters the central canal of the spinal
cord.
•The CSF exits the fourth ventricle through small openings in
its walls and roof and enters the subarachnoid space.
Cerebrospinal Fluid
•Masses of arachnoid tissue, called arachnoid granulations,
penetrate the superior sagittal sinus, a dural venous sinus in
the longitudinal fissure, and CSF passes from the
subarachnoid space into the blood through these
granulations.
Flow of Cerebrospinal Fluid
Cranial Nerves
•12 pair of cranial nerves
•Named by roman numerals
•2 categories of functions: sensory and motor
Cranial Nerves
•Cranial Nerve I (Olfactory) is a pure sensory nerve for smell
•Cranial Nerve II (Optic) is a pure sensory nerve for vision
•Cranial Nerve III (Occulomotor) is a pure motor nerve for
eye movement
•Cranial Nerve IV (Trochlear) is a pure motor nerve for eye
movement
Cranial Nerves
•Cranial Nerve V (Trigeminal) is both a motor and sensory
nerve. It is sensory for pain, touch, and temperature for the
eye and lower and upper jaws. It is motor for muscles of
chewing.
•Cranial Nerve VI (Abducens) is a pure motor nerve for eye
movement
•Cranial Nerve VII (Facial) is both a sensory and motor nerve.
It is sensory for taste and motor for facial expression.
Cranial Nerves
•Cranial Nerve VIII (Vestibulocochlear) is a pure sensory
nerve for hearing and equilibrium
•Cranial Nerve IX (Glossopharyngeal) is both a motor and
sensory nerve. It is sensory for taste and motor for
swallowing.
•Cranial Nerve X (Vagus) is both a motor and sensory nerve.
It is sensory and motor for organs in the thoracic and
abdominal cavities.
Cranial Nerves
•Cranial Nerve XI (Accessory) is a pure motor nerve for the
trapezius, sternocleidomastoid, and muscles of the larynx.
•Cranial Nerve XII (Hypoglossal) is a pure motor nerve for the
tongue
Autonomic Nervous System
•The autonomic neurons innervate smooth muscle, cardiac
muscle, and glands.
•Autonomic functions are largely controlled unconsciously.
•The autonomic nervous system is composed of the
sympathetic division and the parasympathetic division.
Autonomic Nervous System
•Increased activity in sympathetic neurons generally
prepares the individual for physical activity, whereas
parasympathetic stimulation generally activates involuntary
functions, such as digestion, that are normally associated
with the body at rest.
Autonomic Nervous System
•In the autonomic nervous system, two neurons in series
extend from the CNS to the effector organs.
•The first neuron is called the preganglionic neuron; the
second neuron is the postganglionic neuron.
•The neurons are so named because preganglionic neurons
synapse with postganglionic neurons in autonomic ganglia
within the PNS.
Sympathetic Division
•The cell bodies of sympathetic preganglionic neurons are in
the lateral horns of the spinal cord gray matter between the
first thoracic (T1) and the second lumbar (L2) segments.
•The axons of the preganglionic neurons exit through ventral
roots and project to either sympathetic chain ganglia or
collateral ganglia.
Parasympathetic Division
•Some preganglionic cell bodies of the parasympathetic
division are located within the lateral part of the central
gray matter of the spinal cord in the regions that give rise to
spinal nerves S2 through S4.
•Other preganglionic cell bodies of the parasympathetic
division are located within brainstem nuclei of the
occulomotor, facial, glossopharyngeal, and vagus nerves.
Parasympathetic Division
•Axons of the preganglionic neurons extend through spinal
nerves or cranial nerves to terminal ganglia either located
near effector organs in the head or embedded in the walls
of effector organs in the thorax, abdomen, and pelvis.
•Most of the thoracic and abdominal organs are supplied by
preganglionic neurons of the vagus nerve extending from
the brainstem.
Somatic and Autonomic
Nervous System
Innervation of
Organs by the ANS
Enteric Nervous System
•The enteric nervous system (ENS) consists of plexuses
within the wall of the digestive tract.
•The plexuses include:
• Sensory neurons that connect the digestive tract to the CNS.
• Sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons that connect the CNS to
the digestive tract.
• Enteric neurons, located entirely within the enteric plexuses.
Enteric Nervous System
•Enteric neurons are capable of monitoring and controlling
the digestive tract independently of the CNS through local
reflexes.
•For example, stretching of the digestive tract is detected by
enteric sensory neurons, which stimulate enteric
interneurons. The enteric interneurons stimulate enteric
motor neurons, which stimulate glands to secrete.