Logical Relations:

The Rules of Immediate

Inference
Rexor H. Magbutay
HUM 2 – Philosophy and Logic
1 April 2019
The Rules of Immediate Inference

The lessons we have learned from the previous discussions

showed the types of propositions, e.g. A, E, I, and O.
If we are going to compare each one of them
retaining their subject and predicate terms differing
only on the quality of the copular – either affirmative
or negative – an inference can be derived from such
relation.
The Rules of Immediate Inference

For instance, if we assume the proposition

“All athletes are players”
to be true, what can be said about the truth/falsity
of the following proposition?
1. Some athletes are players. _______
2. No athletes are players. _______
3. Some athletes are not players. _______
The Rules of Immediate Inference

In order to know the truth value of propositions, it is

imperative for us to study the principles covering the
logical oppositional relation also known as the Rules
of Immediate Inference. By opposition here, we mean
the inference grounded on the relation between
propositions containing the same terms but differing in
quality and quantity.
The Rules of Immediate Inference

To be in opposition, propositions must have the same

terms.

Example:
All angels are spiritual beings.
Some angels are spiritual beings.
The Rules of Immediate Inference

But not
All angels are spiritual beings.
No cows are oviparous animals.
The Rules of Immediate Inference

To evaluate the validity of the inferences, certain

principles need to be examined. These are the:
1. Principle of Contradiction;
2. Principle of Contrariety;
3. Principle of Subalternation; and
4. Principle of Subcontrariety.
1. Principle of Contradiction

This principle can be simply stated that nothing is true

and at the same time false. In other words, if the first
proposition is true, then the second proposition is
false, and vice versa. Furthermore, contradictory
opposition is between two propositions differing in both
quantity and quality.
1. Principle of Contradiction

The relation between A and O, E and I falls under the

principle of contradiction. Meaning to say, that if an A
proposition is true, the O proposition becomes false,
and vice-versa. Moreover, if an E proposition is true,
then the I proposition is false. For instance, if we
assume “All men are mortal beings” (A) is true, the
conclusion that “Some men are not mortal beings” (O)
is false.
1. Principle of Contradiction

Furthermore, if we argue that “No dogs are bipedal

animals” (E) is true, the conclusion that “Some dogs
are bipedal animals” (I) is false.
1. Principle of Contradiction

Example 1:

A: All men are mortal E: No men are mortal

beings. (T) beings. (F)

I: Some men are mortal O: Some men are not

beings. (T) mortal beings. (F)
1. Principle of Contradiction

Example 2:

A: All men are mortal E: No men are mortal

beings. (F) beings. (T)

I: Some men are mortal O: Some men are not

beings. (F) mortal beings. (T)
1. Principle of Contradiction

Example 3:

A: All textbooks are

classroom materials. (T)

O: Some textbooks are not

classroom materials. (F)
1. Principle of Contradiction

Example 4:

E: No bids are four-legged

fowl. (T)

I: Some birds are four-

legged. (F)
2. Principle of Contrariety

This principle covers the two universal propositions (A and

E) differing in quality. The principle stipulates that
no two universal propositions can be both true at the
same time – meaning to say that if one of the
universal propositions is true, the other universal
proposition is false.
2. Principle of Contrariety

For instance, example 1:

“All animals are mammals” is assumed to be true,

therefore, the proposition

“No animals are mammals” necessarily is false.

2. Principle of Contrariety

On the other hand, the relation between the two universal

propositions wherein the value of the first
proposition is assumed to be false, the value of the
second universal proposition becomes indeterminate.
2. Principle of Contrariety

Example 2:
Just for the sake of illustration, if “Alice is older than
Betty” is true, the statement “Betty is older than Alice”
is false.
On the other hand, what if the statement “Alice is older
than Betty” is false?
2. Principle of Contrariety

Good judgment requires that it is not so.

The statement “Betty is older than Alice” becomes false if
Alice and Betty are of the same age. Hence, the
inference becomes indeterminate.
2. Principle of Contrariety

Example 3:
All idolaters are sinful people. (A) – T
No idolaters are sinful people. (E) – F

If A is true, then E becomes false.

2. Principle of Contrariety

Example 4:
All metals melt under high pressure. (A) – F
No metals melt under high pressure. (E) – Doubtful
or Indeterminate

If A is false, then E becomes doubtful.

3. Principle of Subalternation

The principle of subalternation states that the truth of the

universal propositions is also the truth of their
subsequent particular propositions.

Example 1:
All carabaos are black. (A) – T
Some carabaos are black. (I) – T
3. Principle of Subalternation

However, it has to be noted that the truth of the

particular proposition cannot be the truth of the
universal propositions.

Example 2:
Some carabaos are black. (I) – T
All carabaos are black. (A) – ?
3. Principle of Subalternation

The other side of the principle of subalternation concerns

the falsity values. The principle states that the falsity of
the universal proposition does not constitute the falsity of
the particular proposition; rather, the falsity of the
particular proposition makes the universal proposition
false.
3. Principle of Subalternation

Example 3:
Some students are diligent. (I) – F
All students are diligent. (A) – F
Example 4:
All students are diligent. (A) – F
Some students are diligent. (I) – could be T/F
4. Principle of Subcontrariety

The principle of contrariety involves the relation between

the two particular propositions I and O. The
principle states that if one of the particular proposition
is false, necessarily the remaining proposition
becomes true.
Hence, if I is false, then O becomes true. Thus, if we
argue that “Some dogs are imported animals” is false,
then the proposition “Some dogs are not imported
animals is true.
4. Principle of Subcontrariety

On the other hand, if one of the particular propositions,

i.e., I is true, the O proposition becomes doubtful or
indeterminate. For instance,
Some Filipinos are overseas workers. (I)
Some Filipinos are not overseas workers. (O)