Describing Data:

Frequency Tables, Frequency

Distributions, and Graphic Presentation

Chapter 2

McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2010 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 GOALS

1. Organize qualitative data into a frequency table.

2. Present a frequency table as a bar chart or a pie
chart.
3. Organize quantitative data into a frequency
distribution.
4. Present a frequency distribution for quantitative
data using histograms, frequency polygons, and
cumulative frequency polygons.

2-2
 Learning Objectives

1. Describe data using graphs

2-3 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc

 2.1

Describing Qualitative Data

2-4 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc

 Data
Presentation

Qualitative Quantitative
Data Data

Summary Frequency
Table Distribution

Bar Pie Pareto

Histogram
Graph Chart Diagram

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 Summary Table

1. Lists categories & number of elements in category

2. Obtained by tallying responses in category
3. May show frequencies (counts), % or both

Row Is
Major Count Tally:
Category |||| ||||
Accounting 130
|||| ||||
Economics 20
Management 50
Total 200
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 Bar Graph

150 Equal Bar

Widths Bar Height
Shows
Frequency

Percent 100 Frequency or %

Used
Also
50

0
Acct. Econ. Mgmt.
Vertical Bars
Zero Point Major for Qualitative
Variables

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc

 Bar Charts

BAR CHART A graph in which the classes are reported on the

horizontal axis and the class frequencies on the vertical axis. The
class frequencies are proportional to the heights of the bars.

2-8
 Pie Charts

PIE CHART A chart that shows the proportion or percent

that each class represents of the total number of
frequencies.

2-9
 Visualizing Categorical Data:
The Bar Chart
 In a bar chart, a bar shows each category, the length of which
represents the amount, frequency or percentage of values falling into
a category which come from the summary table of the variable.

Banking Preference

Banking Preference? % Internet

ATM 16%
In person at branch
Automated or live 2%
telephone
Drive-through service at branch
Drive-through service at 17%
branch
In person at branch 41% Automated or live telephone

Internet 24%
ATM

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45%

Chap 2-10 Copyright ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as

Prentice Hall
•Chap 2-10
 Visualizing Categorical Data:
The Pie Chart
 The pie chart is a circle broken up into slices that represent categories.
The size of each slice of the pie varies according to the percentage in
each category.
Banking Preference

Banking Preference? %
16% ATM
ATM 16% 24%
2% Automated or live
Automated or live 2%
telephone
telephone
Drive-through service at
Drive-through service at 17%
17% branch
branch
In person at branch
In person at branch 41%
Internet 24% Internet
41%

Chap 2-11 Copyright ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as

Prentice Hall
•Chap 2-11
 Visualizing Categorical Data:
The Pareto Chart

• Used to portray categorical data (nominal scale)

• A vertical bar chart, where categories are shown in
descending order of frequency
• A cumulative polygon is shown in the same graph
• Used to separate the “vital few” from the “trivial
many”

Chap 2-12 Copyright ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as

Prentice Hall
•Chap 2-12
Visualizing Categorical Data:
The Pareto Chart (con’t)

Pareto Chart For Banking Preference

100% 100%
% in each category

80% 80%

Cumulative %
(line graph)
(bar graph)

60% 60%

40% 40%

20% 20%

0% 0%
In person Internet Drive- ATM Automated
at branch through or live
service at telephone
branch

Copyright ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as

Prentice Hall Chap 2-14
•Chap 2-14
 Pareto Diagram
Like a bar graph, but with the categories arranged by
height in descending order from left to right.
150
Equal Bar
Widths Bar Height
Shows
Frequency

100
Percent Frequency or %
Used
Also
50

0
Acct. Mgmt. Econ.
Major Vertical Bars
Zero Point for Qualitative
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc
Variables
Pareto Diagram

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc

Pareto Diagram

17
Summary
Bar graph: The categories (classes) of the qualitative variable are
represented by bars, where the height of each bar is either the class
frequency, class relative frequency, or class percentage.
Pie chart: The categories (classes) of the qualitative variable are
represented by slices of a pie (circle). The size of each slice is proportional
to the class relative frequency.
Pareto diagram: A bar graph with the categories (classes) of the
qualitative variable (i.e., the bars) arranged by height in descending order
from left to right.

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc

 Thinking Challenge
You’re an analyst for IRI. You want to show the market shares held by
Web browsers in 2006. Construct a bar graph, pie chart, & Pareto
diagram to describe the data.

Browser Mkt. Share (%)

Firefox 14
Internet Explorer 81
Safari 4
Others 1
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc
 Bar Graph Solution*

100%
Market Share (%)

80%

60%

40%

20%

0%
Firefox Internet Safari Others
Explorer

Browser
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc
 Pie Chart Solution*
Market Share
Firefox,
14%

Safari, 4%
Others,
1%

Internet
Explorer,
81%

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc

 Pareto Diagram Solution*

100%
Market Share (%)

80%

60%

40%

20%

0%
Internet Firefox Safari Others
Explorer

Browser
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc
 A Contingency Table Helps Organize Two or
More Categorical Variables
• Used to study patterns that may exist between the responses
of two or more categorical variables

• Cross tabulates or tallies jointly the responses of the

categorical variables

• For two variables the tallies for one variable are located in the
rows and the tallies for the second variable are located in the
columns

Chap 2-23 Copyright ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as

Prentice Hall
•Chap 2-23
Contingency Table - Example

• A random sample of 400 invoices •Contingency Table Showing

is drawn. •Frequency of Invoices Categorized
• Each invoice is categorized as a •By Size and The Presence Of Errors
small, medium, or large amount. No
• Each invoice is also examined to Errors Errors Total

identify if there are any errors. Small 170 20 190

Amount
• These data are then organized in
the contingency table to the Medium
Amount
100 40 140

right.
Large 65 5 70
Amount

335 65 400
Total

Chap 2-24
•Chap 2-24
Contingency Table Based On Percentage of Overall
Total

No
Errors Errors Total •42.50% = 170 / 400
Small 170 20 190 •25.00% = 100 / 400
Amount
•16.25% = 65 / 400
Medium 100 40 140
Amount
No
Errors Errors Total
Large 65 5 70
Amount
Small 42.50% 5.00% 47.50%
Amount
335 65 400
Total
Medium 25.00% 10.00% 35.00%
Amount
•83.75% of sampled invoices have no
Large 16.25% 1.25% 17.50%
errors and 47.50% of sampled Amount
invoices are for small amounts.
83.75% 16.25% 100.0%
Total

Chap 2-25 Copyright ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as

Prentice Hall
•Chap 2-25
Contingency Table Based On Percentage of Row
Totals

26
Contingency Table Based On Percentage of Column
Total

27
 2.2

Graphical Methods for Describing

Quantitative Data

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Frequency Distribution Table Steps

1. Determine range
2. Select number of classes
• Usually between 5 & 15 inclusive
3. Compute class intervals (width)
4. Determine class boundaries (limits)
5. Compute class midpoints
6. Count observations & assign to classes

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 Frequency Distribution Table Example

Raw Data: 24, 26, 24, 21, 27 27 30, 41, 32, 38

Class Midpoint Frequency

15.5 – 25.5 20.5 3

Width
25.5 – 35.5 30.5 5

35.5 – 45.5 40.5 2

Boundaries (Lower + Upper Boundaries) / 2

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc
 Histogram

HISTOGRAM A graph in which the classes are marked on the

horizontal axis and the class frequencies on the vertical axis. The
class frequencies are represented by the heights of the bars and the
bars are drawn adjacent to each other.

2-31
 Frequency Polygon

 A frequency polygon
also shows the shape
of a distribution and is
similar to a histogram.

 It consists of line
segments connecting
the points formed by
the intersections of the
class midpoints and the
class frequencies.

2-32
 Histogram Versus Frequency Polygon

 Both provide a quick picture of the main characteristics of the

data (highs, lows, points of concentration, etc.)
 The histogram has the advantage of depicting each class as a
rectangle, with the height of the rectangular bar representing
the number in each class.
 The frequency polygon has an advantage over the histogram. It
allows us to compare directly two or more frequency
distributions.

2-33
 Cumulative Frequency Distribution

2-34
Visualizing Numerical Data:
The Polygon

 A percentage polygon is formed by having the midpoint of

each class represent the data in that class and then connecting
the sequence of midpoints at their respective class percentages.

 The cumulative percentage polygon, or ogive, displays the

variable of interest along the X axis, and the cumulative
percentages along the Y axis.

 Useful when there are two or more groups to compare.

•Copyright ©2012 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice

Hall
•Chap 2-35
•Chap 2-35
 Cumulative Frequency Distribution

2-36
Time Series Plot

• Used to graphically display data produced over time

• Shows trends and changes in the data over time
• Time recorded on the horizontal axis
• Measurements recorded on the vertical axis
• Points connected by straight lines

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc

 Time Series Plot Example

• The following data shows Average

the average retail price of Date Price
regular gasoline in New Oct 16, 2006 $2.219
York City for 8 weeks in
Oct 23, 2006 $2.173
2006.
Oct 30, 2006 $2.177
• Draw a time series plot for
this data. Nov 6, 2006 $2.158
Nov 13, 2006 $2.185
Nov 20, 2006 $2.208
Nov 27, 2006 $2.236
Dec 4, 2006 $2.298
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc
Time Series Plot Example
Price
2.35

2.3

2.25

2.2

2.15

2.1

2.05
10/16 10/23 10/30 11/6 11/13 11/20 11/27 12/4

Date
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SCATTER PLOTS AND LINES OF BEST FIT
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•Positive •Negative •little or

correlation correlation no
correlation
 •Example 1:
• The scatter plots of data relate characteristics of children from
•0 to 18 years old.

• Match each scatter plot with the appropriate variables studied.

• 1. age and height
• 2. age and eye color
• 3. age and time needed to run a certain distance
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•no correlation •as your age increases •as your age

between age your height also increases increases the time
and eye color will decrease
•2 •1 •3
•An effective way to see a relationship in data is to display
•scatter plot
the information as a __________________.
•It shows how two variables relate to each other by showing
•fit
how closely the data points _______ to a line.
•The following table presents information on tornado occurrences.
•Make a scatter plot for the table.

Year 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995
# of
201 593 616 897 654 919 866 684 1133 1234
Tornadoes
 •Scatter plots provide a convenient way to determine
•correlation exists between two variables.
whether a ___________
•positive
•A __________ correlation occurs when both variables
increase.
•negative
•A ___________ correlation occurs when one variable
increases and the other variable decreases.

•If the data points are randomly scattered there is _______

•little
or no correlation.