CHAPTER THREE

Uniform flow
CHAPTER OUTLINE
 Concept and Establishment of Uniform
flow
 Uniform flow Equations
 Uniform flow Computation
 The Hydraulic Efficient Channel Section
 Compound Sections
 Design of Irrigation Channels

1
 Characteristics of Uniform flow
Uniform flow in open channels has the following main
characteristics
 The depth, water area, velocity, and discharge at every
section of the channel are constant
Slope of the energy line Sf, slope of the water surface
Sw and bottom slope So will all be equal to each other.
 Uniform flow is possible only in prismatic channels.
Uniform flow is referring the steady uniform flow
For any channel of given roughness, cross section and
slope, there exists one and only one water depth, called
the normal depth , at which the flow will be uniform

2
Establishment of Uniform Flow
 When flow occurs in an open channel, resistance is
encountered by the water as it flows downstream
 A uniform flow will be developed if the resistance is
balanced by the gravity forces.
 If the water enters into a channel slowly, the velocity
and the resistance are small, and the resistance is
outbalanced by the gravity forces, resulting in an
accelerating flow in the upstream reach. .
 The velocity and the resistance will gradually increase
until a balance between resistance and gravity forces is
reached.
 At this moment and afterward the flow becomes
uniform.
3
Computation of Uniform flow
The Chezy Formula
Consider the following stretch of channel

 By applying the momentum equation to control volume encompassing

sections 1 and 2, distance L apart as shown in the figure.
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 -------------------
(3.1)
 Where: P1 and P2 are the pressure forces and
 M1 and M2 are the momentum fluxes at section 1
and 2 respectively
 W= weight to fluid in the control volume and
 Ff = shear force at the boundary
 Since the flow is uniform P1 =P2 and M1=M2 also
W=AL and Ff= 0PL
 Where 0 = average shear stress on the wetted
perimeter of length P. = unit weight of water

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Replacing sin by S0 (bottom slope)
equation (3.1) become
AL PL⇒ =⇒= ------------------ (3.2)
Expressing the average shear stress ,
where k=a coefficient which depends on
the nature of the surface and flow
parameters. Equation (3.2) can be written
as

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kP=⇒V=------------- (3.3)
Where k C= =acoefficient which depends
on the nature of the surface Equation (3.3)
is known as Chezy formula and the
coefficient C is known as the chezy
coefficient.

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The MANNING’S Formula
The simplest resistance formula and
the most widely used equation for the
mean velocity calculation is the
Manning equation
V=-----------------------------(3.4)
Where V = mean velocity R= Hydraulic
Radius So = channel slope n = Manning’s
roughness coefficient
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Cont.…
 if we equating Equations. (3.3) and (3.4), we get So=
C=----------------------(3.5)
 We can use Manning's formula for discharge to calculate
steady uniform flow.
 Two calculations are usually performed to solve uniform
flow problems.

1. Discharge from a given depth

2. Depth for a given discharge

In steady uniform flow the flow depth is know as normal depth.

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CONT…
 Estimation of Normal Depth and Velocity
 The Manning equation gives V =
 The Chezy equation gives V = C=
 and by law of conservation of mass this equations,
when multiplied by the flow area, yields an
equation for uniform flow rate or
 Manning Q = , or
 for Chezy Q = C A
 In Manning equation the parameter and in the
Chezy equation the parameters CA are called the
conveyance of a channel section.
10
 Cont…
 It is measure of the carrying capacity of a channel section;
since it is directly proportional to Q.
Manning K = = and Chezy K = CA=
 The above two equations are used to compute the
conveyance when the geometry of the water area and the
resistance factor or roughness coefficient are given.
 Conveyance of a channel section increases within increase in
hydraulic Radius R or with decrease in the wetted perimeter.
 In Manning's equation the parameter A is termed as the
section factor for uniform flow computation
 it is an important element in the computation of uniform flow.
 From Manning‟s equation =

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The right side of the equation contains the values
of n, Q, and S; but the left side depends only on
the geometry of the water area.
Therefore, it shows that, for a given condition of n,
Q, and S, there is only one possible depth for
maintaining uniform flow, provided that the value
of AR2/3 always increases with increase in depth,
which is true in most cases.
 This depth is the normal depth. When n and S are known
at a channel section, from the equation there can be only
one discharge for maintaining a uniform flow through the
section, provided that AR2/3 always increases with
increase of depth. 12
 Thisdischarge is the normal discharge.
 When the discharge, slope, and roughness are
known, this equation gives the
 section factor A and hence, the normal
depth yo.
 On the other hand, when n, s and yo, hence
the section factor are given, the normal
discharge Q can be computed from
Q=
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Uniform flow problem must be solved by
Trial and error (Algebraic method)
Numerical method (using computer)
Design chart (using graph)
Example1: Given a trapezoidal channel
with a bottom width of 3m, side slope 1.5,
a longitudinal slope of 0.0016 and
estimated n of 0.13, find the normal depth
of flow for a discharge of 7.1.
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Example 2.A rectangular channel is 2.5 m
wide and has a uniform bed slope of 1 in
500. If the depth of flow is constant at 1.7
m calculate (a) the hydraulic mean depth,
(b) the velocity of flow, (c) the volume
rate of flow. Assume that the value of the
coefficient C in Chezy’s formula is 50.

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Equivalent Roughness
 In some channels different parts of the channel
perimeter may have different roughnesses.
 For such channels it is necessary to determine
an equivalent roughness coefficient that can be
applied to the entire cross-sectional perimeter in
using the Manning’s formula.
 This equivalent roughness, also called the
composite roughness, represents a weighted
average value for the roughness coefficient, n

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 Figure 3.1 :Multi-roughness type perimeter
 A large number of formulae, proposed by various
investigators for calculating equivalent roughness of
multi-roughness channel are available in literature.
 All of them are based on some assumptions and
approximately effective to the same degree.

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Cont…
 Horton’smethod of Equivalent Roughness Estimation:
Consider a channel having its perimeter composed of
N types roughnesses. P1, P2,…., PN are the lengths of
these N parts and n1, n2,…….., nN are the respective
roughness coefficients as presented in the above
figure.
 Let each part Pi be associated with a partial area Ai
such that,
I 18
=A=Total area
Itis assumed that the mean velocity in
each partial area is the mean velocity V
for the entire area of flow,
==…==…….==V
By the Manning’s equation,

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 ==----=----=
Where n = Equivalent roughness.
From the above equation
=
 Ai= ∑Ai=A=A∑
 n=

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Cont.…
This equation gives a means of estimating
the equivalent roughness of a channel having
multiple roughness types in its perimeters.
Example3: A trapezoidal channel of bed-
width 4.00m and side slopes 1.5 horizontal
to 1vertical has a sand bed (n1=0.025). At
certain reach the sides are lined by smooth
concrete (n2=0.012). Calculate the
equivalent roughness of this reach if the
depth of flow is 1.50m
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 Example4.An earthen trapezoidal channel (n
= 0.025) has a bottom width of 5.0 m, side
slopes of 1.5 horizontal: 1 vertical and a
uniform flow depth of 1.10 m. In an
economic study to remedy excessive seepage
from the canal two proposals, a) to line the
sides only and, b) to line the bed only are
considered. If the lining is of smooth
concrete (n = 0.012), calculate the equivalent
roughness in the above two cases.
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Example5.A rectangular channel 3.60m
wide had badly-damaged surfaces and had
a Manning's roughness coefficient
(n=0.03). As a first phase of repair, its bed
was lined with concrete (n=0.015). If
depth of flow remains same at 1.20m
before and after the repair, what is the
increase of discharge obtained as result of
repair?
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The Hydraulic Efficient Channel
Section
 The best hydraulic cross section is defined as the
section of maximum flow rate ( Q) for a constant
hydraulic (A), slope ( So), and roughness
coefficient (n).
 The best hydraulic (the most efficient) cross-
section for a given Q, n, and So is the one with a
minimum excavation and minimum lining cross-
section. A = Amin and P = Pmin.
 The minimum cross sectional area and the
minimum lining area will reduce construction
expenses and therefore that cross-section is
economically the most efficient one.hydraulics
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 In other case the best hydraulic cross-
section for a given A, n, and So is the
cross-section that conveys maximum
discharge.
Thus the cross-section with the minimum
wetted perimeter is the best hydraulic
cross-section within the cross-sections with
the same area since lining and maintenance
expenses will reduce substantially.
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 Q=
V==CXR Q=C’’xR
V= C=Constant
 Q=
R= R=
R= R=

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Rectangular channel section
 A=BY
 B=
P=B+2y=+2y
Since P=Pmin for the best hydraulic
section, taking the derivative of P with
respect to y

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The best rectangular hydraulic cross-
section for a constant area is the one with
B = 2y. The hydraulic radius of this cross-
section is,
=
For all best hydraulic cross-sections, the
hydraulic radius should always be R = y/2
regardless of their shapes.

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Therefore, the rectangular channel will be
the most economical where
a, Either b=2y means width is two times
depth of flow
b,R=Y/2,means hydraulic depth is half the
depth of flow.

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Trapezoidal Channel Section

a)For a given side slope m, what will be the

water depth y for best hydraulic trapezoidal
cross-section? For a given A , P = Pmin

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b). For a given water depth y, what will be the side slope m
for best hydraulic trapezoidal cross-section?

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The channel bottom width is equal one
third of the wetted perimeter and therefore
sides and channel width B are equal to
each other at the best trapezoidal
hydraulic cross-section. Since α = 600, the
cross-section is half of the hexagon.

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Table 3.1. values of parameters in Efficient
(best) hydraulic section

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 Example6. Calculate the best hydraulic
rectangular cross-section to convey Q=10 m3
/sec discharge with n= 0.02 and S0= 0.0009
canal characteristics.
Example7.A trapezoidal channel is to be
designed to carry a discharge of 75 with a
velocity of 1.75The side slope of the channel
are 2:1 and the manning’s roughness is 0.03.If
the channel is designed for maximum hydraulic
efficiency conditions,What should be bottom
width and height of the channel.
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 Compound Sections
It occurs when channel shapes with flow
depth. It is a typical idea in natural
stream sections during flooding.

Figure 3.2: Compound Section

As shown in (fig.3.2.) above the channel is divided by

imaginary lines (CK and FJ). Assuming the longitudinal slopes
to be the same for all sub sections, it is easy to see that the
subsections will have different velocities depending on the
depth and roughness of the boundaries. Open Channel hydraulics
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 Generally over banks have larger size of
roughness than the deeper main channel, If the
depth of flow is confined to the deep channel
only (i.e. yh, discharge calculation is
complicated as the calculation may give
smaller hydraulic radius (R), hence discharge
may underestimated.
 At normal conditions, water flows in the main
channel during floods, water spills over the
flood plain

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For values of y>ym considering the whole
area as unity is adequate.
 If h<y<ym (Maximum depth .)
 Method of Discharge Calculation in Compound
Channel Section
i) The discharge is calculated as the sum of the
partial discharges in the sub-areas
(1, 2, 3,) Qp =

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ii) The discharge is also calculated by
considering the whole section as unity
(Portion ABCDEFGHA) in (fig3.2) (Qw)
iii) The larger of the above two discharge is
adopted as the discharge at depth y.

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For determining the discharge in partial
areas (Qp) two methods are available

1.Posey’s Method:in this method, while calculating

the wetted perimeter for sub-areas, the imaginary
divisions (FJ and CK) in figure above are
considered as boundary for the deeper portion and
neglected completely in the shallower portion.
In this shear stress that accounted for interface of
the deeper and shallower parts.
2. Zero Shear Method: - treat the interface as purely
a hypothetically interface with zero shear stress.
The interfaces are not counted as perimeter either
for the deep portion or shallow portion.
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Example8: A compound channel is symmetrical
in cross section and has the following geometric
properties
 Main channel:
Trapezoidal cross section,
– Bottom width = 15.0 m,
– Side slopes = 1.5H:1V,
– Bank full depth = 3.0 m,
– Manning’s coefficient = 0.03,
– Longitudinal slope = 0.0009
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Flood plains:
– Width = 75 m,
– Side slope = 1.5H:1V,
– Manning’s coefficient = 0.05,
– Longitudinal slope = 0.0009.
Compute the uniform flow discharge for a
flow with total depth of 4.2 m by using
posey’s method (diagonal interface), and Zero
Shear Method (vertical) interface procedures.
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Example9.For the compound section shown
in figure below. Find the discharge when h =
1 m. Assume n = 0.02 and So =0.0005 for
all parts of the perimeter. Use Posey‟s
method for computing partial discharges.

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Design of Irrigation Channels
 The design discharge of an irrigation channel
is fixed and depends upon the irrigated areas
of crops in different seasons and the water
requirements of crops.
 The design of the canal is mainly governed
by the quantity of silt in the water and the
type of boundary surface of the channel.
Depending upon these factors,
 The irrigation channels can be broadly
classified into following types:
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1. Non-alluvial channels: These are excavated in
Non-alluvial soils such as loam, clay, moorum,
boulder, etc
There is no silt problem in these channels and
they are relatively stable.
2. Rigid boundary channels: In the Rigid
boundary channels, the surface of the channel
is lined.
In such channels, relatively high velocity can be
permitted which does not allow the silt to get
deposited; hence, the problem of silt does not exist
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3. Alluvial channels: These are excavated in alluvial
soils, such as silt.
 In such channels, the quantity of silt may vary from
section to section along the reach.
 The silt content may increase due to scouring of bed
and sides of the channel and it may decrease due to
silting at some sections.
 If velocity is high, scouring occurs and if velocity is
low, silting may occur.
 Such channels should be designed for a non scouring
and a non-silting velocity called the critical velocity
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Design of Non-alluvial channels
 Non-alluvial channels are considered stable
as there is no silt problem in such channels.
These channels are usually designed on the
basis of the maximum permissible velocity
which the channel boundary surface can
resist without scouring.
 The design of non- alluvial channels is
done by Chezy’s equation or Manning’s
formula:
 Chezy’s equation V=C
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 Manning’s formula V=
where N is Manning’s coefficient and depends
upon the type of surface
Procedure for design: The following procedure is
used for the design of a non- alluvial channel by
Manning’s formula.
 Similar procedure can be used for the design
by Chezy’s equation. Given: Discharge (Q),
maximum permissible velocity (V), Manning’s
N, Bed slope (S) and the side slope (r: 1) are
given.
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Steps: 1. Determine the area of cross-
section from the continuity equation.
Q=AV or A=
2. Determine the hydraulic radius R from
the manning’s formula
V= orR=
3. Determine the wetted perimeter from the
relation, P = A/R

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4. Determine the depth D and bed width B
from the values of A and P by solving the
equations given below.
A= D
P=B+D

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Example10 : Design an irrigation channel
in a non-erodible material to carry a
discharge of 15 when the maximum
permissible velocity is 0.8 m/s. Assume
bed slope = 1 in 4000, side slope = 1:1
and Manning’s N = 0.025.

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Design of Lined canals
A lined canal is rigid boundary channel.
It can withstand much higher velocity as
compared to an unlined, non-alluvial
channel or alluvial channel.
The design is similar to the design of non-
alluvial channels.
However, the maximum permissible
velocity is relatively high.
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Design procedure for a trapezoidal lined
channel:
Given: The following data should be
collected or assumed.
 Bed slope (S)
 Side slope or the angle
 Rugosity coefficient N
 Limiting velocity V.

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 Steps:
 Determine the area of flow, A = Q/V
 Determine the hydraulic radius, R =
 Determine the wetted perimeter, P = A/R.
 Determine the values of B and D from
the computed values of A and P by
utilizing the geometries given above for
the section

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Alternative method: If instead of the
limiting velocity V. the B/D ratio is given,
the following procedure is used. Let B/D =
x.
Steps:
 Determine
V==== or Determine the hydraulic radius

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R==
R==R=
Write down Manning’s formula as:
V= =
S

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Determine D from above equation.
B=XD
Example11. Design a lined channel to carry
a discharge of 120 cumecs. The velocity of
flow may be taken as 2 m/s. Take side slope
as 1: 1. Assume N as 0 018 bed slope as 1
in 3000

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Design of Alluvial channels
 ln the case of alluvial channels, the channel surface
consists of alluvial soil which can be easily scoured.
 Moreover, the velocity is low which encourages silting.
 Therefore, in an alluvial channel, scouring and silting
may occur if the channel is not properly designed.
 The quantity of silt transported by water in an alluvial
channel varies from section to section due to scouring
of bed and sides as well as due to Silting (or
deposition).
 If the velocity is too high, scouring may occur. On the
other hand, if the velocity is too low, silting may occur.
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 The command of an irrigation channel decreases if the scouring
occurs because the fall supply level falls.
 The discharge capacity is decreased if the silting occurs because
the cross-section is reduced.
 Therefore the alluvial channel should be designed such that
neither scouring nor silting occurs.
 The velocity at which this condition occurs is called the critical
velocity. Such an alluvial channel is called a stable channel.
 Therefore, a stable channel is one in which banks and bed are not
scoured and also in which no silting occurs. Even if there is some
minor scouring and silting, the bed and banks of a stable channel
remain more or less unaltered over a long period of time
 These are known as Silt theories. The most commonly used
theories are:
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1. Kennedy’s silt theory 2. Lacey’s silt theory.
Kennedy’s silt theory
 Therefore, the eddies generated only at the bed
of the channel are effective for transportation of
the silt.
 Thus, the silt supporting power is proportional
to the bed width (and not the wetted perimeter).
Kennedy therefore, selected the relevant
parameter as the depth of flow D (and not the
hydraulic radius R) for the critical velocity
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 According to Kennedy, the critical velocity Vc in a channel may be
defined as the mean velocity of flow which will just keep the channel free
from silting or scouring. He gave his equation as

V0 = 0.55

Later he recognized that the grade (or size) of silt played an important
role in the silt-carrying capacity of the channel and introduced another
factor, called the critical velocity ratio (m). the equation was thus
modified as: V = 0.55
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m = critical velocity ratio = 1.1 to 1.2 for
coarse sand = 0.8 to 0.9 for fine sand
Kennedy’s method of design: Kennedy used
3 basic equations, namely:
1. Continuity equation: Q = A V
2. Flow equation (Kutter’s equation):
V=

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3. Kennedy’s critical velocity equation: V =
0.55 m
 Generally, discharge Q, Manning’s
coefficient N and the C.V.R (m) are given
or assumed. Still there are 4 unknowns,
namely A, V, R and S. Since there are only
3 equations and 4 unknowns, the complete
solution is not possible.
To obtain the complete solution, either bed
slope or B/D ratio is assumed.
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 Design Procedure:
1. When the bed slope is given: Given: Q,
m, N and S.
Steps:
Assume a trial value of the depth D.
Calculate the velocity V using V = 0.55 m
Determine the cross sectional area, A = Q/V
Assuming a side slope of 0.5: 1, compute
the bed width.
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A=BD+ or B=
Compute the wetted perimeter for the
assumed depth and computed bed width.
P=B+D
Compute the hydraulic radius from the
relation R=
Calculate the actual mean velocity V from
Kutter’s equation

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 If the velocity computed now is same as found by Kennedy’s method, the
design depth is correct. Otherwise, repeat the above steps by assuming
different depth of flow. If the Velocity from Kennedy’s equation is less
than that from Kutter’s equation, a greater value of D is assumed for the
next trial and vice versa.
2. Design procedure when B/D is given:
Given: Q, m, N and B/D.
Steps:
Calculate the area in terms of D.

A = BD + 0.5 D2 = D2 (B/D + 0.5)

or A = D2 (x + 0.5)
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Write the continuity equation and
substitute Kennedy’s equation for the
velocity.
Q = AV = D2 (x + 0.5) 0.55 m D0.64
Calculate the value of D from above
equation.
 Determine the bed width. B = x D
Compute the hydraulic radius
R=
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Example12 . Design an irrigation channel
by Kennedy’s theory to carry a discharge of
5 cumecs. Take m = 1.0, N = 0.0225 and
B/D = 4.4.

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Lacey’s Regime theory
investigations on the design of stable
channel in alluviums.
 On the basis of his research work he found
many drawbacks in Kennedy’s theory and
he put forward his new theory .
He differentiated between three regime
conditions:
1. True regime 2.initial regime 3.final regime
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Lacey’s fundamental equations:
 Lacey gave four basic equations:
1. Silt factor: This is similar to C.V.R (m) as introduced
by Kennedy.
The silt factor was related to the average particle size of
the silt.
The silt factor depends upon the average size of the
channel boundary material and its density.
Since the specific gravity of all the transported material is
same (about 2.65), the difference in density is ignored,
hence the silt factor is related only to the particle size.
Lacey gave the following equation for silt factor=
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m is the average particle size in mm.
2. Relation between mean velocity (V) and
hydraulic radius (R):V=fR
3. Relation between cross-sectional area (A)
and mean velocity (V):A
4. Flow equation=10.8R
Lacey’s derived equations:
Following equations are derived from the
Lacey’s basic or fundamental equations as:
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 1.Velocity equation:
Multiplying both sides by
2. Wetted perimeter equation:

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Generally, this constant is taken as 0.47.
Therefore R=0.47

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Design of channels by lacey’s equation:
Procedure:
Given: Discharge Q and silt factor .
Steps:

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Example13 : The bed slope of a regime
channel is 1 in 5800. Determine the channel
section and discharge. The average particle
size is 0.323 mm.

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