General

Anthropology
Ms. Ayesha Liaqat
General Anthropology
Anthropology is the scientific study of humans, human
societies, and human cultures. It encompasses a broad
range of topics and approaches, seeking to understand the
diversity of human experiences across time and space.
General anthropology, aka “four-field” anthropology,
encompasses four main subdisciplines:
• Sociocultural (often referred to as cultural anthropology)
• Archaeological
• Biological
• Linguistic anthropology.
“four-field” anthropology

Cultural Anthropology: the study of human

society and culture, is the subfield that
describes, analyzes, interprets, and
explains social and cultural similarities and
differences.
To study and interpret cultural diversity,
cultural anthropologists engage in two kinds
of activity: ethnography (based on
fieldwork) and ethnology (based on cross-
cultural comparison).
 Archaeological Anthropology:
Anthropological archaeology (also known as archaeological
anthropology or, most simply, “archaeology”) reconstructs,
describes, and interprets human behavior and cultural patterns
through material remains.
Examples:
• At sites where people live or have lived, archaeologists find
“four-field” artifacts, material items that humans have made, used, or
modified, such as tools, weapons, campsites, buildings, and
anthropology garbage.
• Plant and animal remains and garbage tell stories about
consumption and activities. Wild and domesticated grains have
different characteristics, which allow archaeologists to
distinguish between the gathering and the cultivation of plants.
• Animal bones reveal the age and sex of slaughtered animals,
providing other information useful in determining whether
species were wild or domesticated.
“four-field” anthropology

Biological Anthropology: is the study of human biological diversity through time and as it exists in the world
today. There are five specialties within biological anthropology:
• 1. Human biological evolution as revealed by the fossil record (paleoanthropology).
• 2. Human genetics.
• 3. Human growth and development.
• 4. Human biological plasticity (the living body’s ability to change as it copes with environmental conditions,
such as heat, cold, and altitude).
• 5. Primatology (the study of monkeys, apes, and other nonhuman primates).
A common thread that runs across all five specialties is an interest in biological variation among humans,
including their ancestors and their closest animal relatives (monkeys and apes).
 4. Linguistic Anthropology:

“four-field” studies language in its social and cultural

context, through- out the world and over
anthropology time.
Some linguistic anthropologists also make
inferences about universal features of
language, linked perhaps to uniformities in
the human brain.
Key Assumptions in Anthropology:

Anthropologists hold fundamental

In essence, general anthropology
assumptions, among which is the
serves as a holistic framework for
belief that a thorough understanding
exploring the intricacies of human
of “human nature” necessitates a
existence, offering a multidimensional
comparative, cross-cultural approach.
perspective on the interplay between
It is imperative to study a wide range
biology, society, and culture across
of societies and cultural traditions to
time and space.
draw valid conclusions.
What Four-Field Interdisciplinary
Attention to
Change and
distinguishes Approach Nature
Continuity

anthropology Holistic Longitudinal Focus on Cultural

from other Perspective Perspective Relativism

fields that study Comparative Cross-Cultural

Cross-Disciplinary
Collaboration
human beings? Method Focus
 Sociology and Anthropology Similarities:

ANTHROPOLO • Both disciplines study human society, including social

behavior, relations, and organization.

GY AND • Sociocultural anthropology, in particular, shares many

commonalities with sociology.

OTHER Key Differences in Focus:

• Sociologists traditionally study contemporary, Western,
ACADEMIC industrial societies.
• Anthropologists historically focus on nonindustrial and
FIELDS: non-Western societies, often smaller in scale.

Cultural Methodological Variances:

• Sociologists in large-scale societies rely on surveys and

Anthropology quantitative data gathering, employing sampling and

statistical techniques.

and Sociology • Anthropologists, especially in smaller societies, engage in

ethnographic fieldwork, immersing themselves in daily
life, observing, and participating.
ANTHROPOLO Ethnography in Anthropology:

GY AND • Ethnographers in anthropology study small, nonliterate

populations, immersing themselves in the culture and acting as

OTHER detailed observers of behavior and communication.

• Anthropology tends to be more personal and less formal compared

ACADEMIC to sociology.
Evolution of Anthropological Focus:

FIELDS: • Anthropologists now increasingly study industrialized nations and

urban environments, moving beyond traditional village settings.

Cultural Contemporary Research Areas:

• Both sociocultural anthropologists and sociologists investigate
Anthropology topics such as rural-urban migration, transnational migration, urban
adaptation, ethnic diversity, conflict, crime, warfare, globalization,

and Sociology
and inequality.
 Research Scope:

Cultural
• Psychologists primarily focus their research within their own society,
while anthropologists understand that making statements about
“human” psychology requires cross-cultural observations.

Anthropology Cross-Cultural Patterns:

• Psychological anthropology examines cross-cultural similarities and
differences in psychological traits and conditions. It suggests that

Today: some psychological patterns may be universal, while others are specific
to certain cultures.

Anthropology
Influence on Personality:
• Anthropologists, including figures like Bronislaw Malinowski and
Margaret Mead, have shown how specific cultures shape distinct adult

and
personality types by instilling particular values, beliefs, and
behavior patterns in their children.
Contributions to Developmental and Cognitive Psychology:

Psychology • Anthropologists have provided valuable cross-cultural perspectives on

aspects of developmental and cognitive psychology, offering unique
insights (Kronenfeld et al. 2011; Shore 1996).
Cultural Psychoanalytic Interpretations:
• Psychological anthropology has offered alternative interpretations of

Anthropology psychoanalytic concepts, providing cultural context to psychological

phenomena (Gijswijt-Hofstra et al. 2005; Paul 1989).
Culturally Specific Syndromes:

Today: • Anthropologists are familiar with culturally specific syndromes, which

are patterns of behavior unique to particular cultures or related

Anthropology
groups. Examples include koro, susto, and mal de ojo.
Globalization and Psychological Patterns:

and
• Psychological anthropologists recognize how local, indigenous
psychological and psychiatric patterns interact with the forces of
globalization, influencing the concepts and conditions that are
spreading worldwide.

Psychology
Cultural
Anthropology Today

Cultural Anthropology Focus:

• Mainly deals with findings and
conclusions of cultural (sociocultural)
anthropology.
• Refers to cultural anthropology when
using the term “anthropology,” unless
otherwise stated.
Cultural
Anthropology
Today
Evolution of Cultural Anthropology:
• Past Perception:
• Anthropologists studied “native”
peoples in far-off places.
• Accurate until the 1970s.
• Focus on small-scale, non-
Western, preindustrial cultures.
• Shift in Focus:
• Internet accelerates global
communications.
• Diverse range of studies,
including modern American
subcultures.
Cultural Anthropology Today

Examples of Cultural Diversity:

Hmong Community:
• Relocated to the United States, maintain
traditional practices.
Various Asian and African American
Communities:
• Retain cultural traditions and practices.
Latino Community:
• Speaks “Spanglish” and continues Latin
festivals.
European Heritage:
• Recognition of national origins.
Cultural
Anthropology
Today
Globalization and Anthropological
Research:
• Macro-level Research in Other
Disciplines:
• Focus on nations, regions, and inter-
national relationships.
• Anthropological Perspective:
• Intensive fieldwork in local
communities.
• Study dimensions of globalization
on a micro-level.
Cultural Anthropology Today

Consequences of Globalization:
Urbanization and Migration:
• People from remote villages migrate to urban
areas.
• Study of cultures now requires research in multiple
global locations.

Significance of Globalization Research:

Impacts on All Nations:
• Examination of globalization’s effects on global
population.
Potential for a Global Megaculture:
• Speculation on the homogenization of human
cultures due to globalization.
Anthropologica
l Perspectives
on Cultures
 • An Introduction To Cultural
Anthropologytenth Edition James Peoples
And Garrick Bailey (Pg# 2-16 )

• Cultural Anthropology APPRECIATING

Required Reading CULTURAL DIVERSITY
SEVENTEENTH EDITION Conrad
Phillip Kottak (Pg# 1-12)