3.7 Resistance Resistor

M.
03 ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
Sub-Topic 3.7
Resistance/Resistor
Level- 02
Duration Allotted - 06 Hrs.
Issue Date: 01.10.2022 Issue-02, Rev: 0 M. 03 Sub Module-3.7 Prepared by: R S Sharma Approved by: TM
Lesson Plan
01/06
Resistance/Resistor
o Explaining passive electrical component
o Common function of resistor
o Unit of resistance
o Factors affecting resistance
o Specific resistance/resistivity and its units
- Resistor color code
o Body end dot system
o End to center band system
o Color chart
o Finding ohmic value
RESISTOR
o It is two terminal passive electrical
component.
o It resists or opposes the flow of current

through it.
o It produces a desired drop in voltage in a

circuit.
RESISTOR
o It is manufactured in variety of shapes
and sizes.
o Its power/wattage rating is determined

by its physical size.
o Its ohmic value range from fraction of to

several megaohm.
RESISTOR
o Its power rating may be as high as
several hundred watts or as low as 1⁄10
W.
o It does not have polarity.
o So it can be connect any way in a circuit.
RESISTOR
PASSIVE COMPONENTS
RESISTOR CIRCUIT SYMBOL
COMMON FUNCTIONS OF A
RESISTOR
o To establish proper values of circuit
voltages due to IR drops.
o It is mainly responsible for dissipating

power in the form of heat.
COMMON FUNCTIONS OF A
RESISTOR
UNIT OF RESISTANCE
o The unit of resistance is OHM.
o OHM symbol – Ω
o A conductor is said to have resistance of

1Ω if it permits 1A to flow through it when
1V is applied.
FACTORS AFFECTING
RESISTANCE – CONDUCTOR
o It varies directly with length.
o It varies inversely as the cross section

area.
o It depends on nature of the material.
FACTORS AFFECTING
o It also depend upon the temperature of
the conductor.
FACTORS AFFECTING
𝑙 𝑙
𝑅∝ 𝑜𝑟 𝑅= 𝜌 ×
𝐴 𝐴
o ρ = specific resistance/resistivity
FACTORS AFFECTING
FACTORS AFFECTING
o It varies directly with length.
FACTORS AFFECTING
o Cross-sectional area.
SPECIFIC
RESISTANCE/RESISTIVITY
o It can be defined as the resistance
between opposite faces of a meter cube
of the material.
o It is denoted by symbol ‘ρ’.
o SI unit for resistivity is ohm meter.
SPECIFIC
o It enables to measure resistance of
different material irrespective of length
and area.
o Higher value of ‘ρ’ means more

resistance.
SPECIFIC
SPECIFIC
RESISTIVITY OF DIFFERENT
MATERIALS AT 200C
Conductor material Resistivity ohm-meter
Silver 1.64×10-8
Copper 1.72×10-8
Aluminum 2.83×10-8
Tungsten 5.50×10-8
Nickel 7.80×10-8
Iron 12.80×10-8
Constantan 49.0×10-8
Nichrome II 100×10-8
RESISTOR COLOR CODE
o Resistor are color coded to identify their
value.
o Different colors has been assigned a

unique numeric value for resistance.
RESISTOR COLOR CODE
In resistor color code systems;
o Three color bands – indicate the

resistance value in ohms
o Fourth color band – indicate the

tolerance of the resistor.
RESISTOR COLOR CODE TABLE
Color Number Tolerance
Black 0 -
Brown 1 1%
Red 2 2%
Orange 3 3%
Yellow 4 4%
Green 5 5%
Blue 6 6%
Violet 7 7%
Gray 8 8%
White 9 9%
Gold - 5%
Silver - 10%
No color - 20%
RESISTOR COLOR CODE
There are two types of resistor color coding

system:
o Body-End-Dot System
o End-to-Centre Band System.
BODY-END-DOT SYSTEM
BODY-END-DOT SYSTEM
END TO CENTER BAND
SYSTEM
BODY-END-DOT SYSTEM
o Body color – 1st digit of ohmic value
o End color – 2nd digit of ohmic value
o Dot color – no. of zeros to be added
o Ring color – tolerance
o No ring – 20% tolerance

BODY-END-DOT SYSTEM
o Body -1stdigit - 2
o End - 2nd digit - 5
o Dot-Number of zeros - 00000
o R = 250,000±20% ohms
END TO CENTER BAND
SYSTEM
o Without fourth band, tolerance = 20%.
END TO CENTER BAND
SYSTEM
o R = 250000
o Max R = 250 000 Ω + 50 000 Ω

= 300 000 Ω
o Min R = 250 000 Ω – 50 000 Ω

= 200 000
END TO CENTER BAND
SYSTEM
o Resistor with four bands.
END TO CENTER BAND
SYSTEM
o R = 86 000 ± 10%
o Max R = 94 600 ohms
o Min R = 77 400 ohms
END TO CENTER BAND
SYSTEM
o Resistor with four bands other than gold
and silver.
END TO CENTER BAND
SYSTEM
o R = 2 500 ± 2%
o Max R = 2 550 ohms
o Min R = 2 450 ohms
END TO CENTER BAND
SYSTEM
o Gold and silver is never used in 1st and
2nd band.
o If the third band is gold in color, the first

two digits must be multiplied by 10%.
o If the third band is silver in color, the first

two digits must be multiplied by 1%.
END TO CENTER BAND
SYSTEM
o R = 10 × 0.10 ± 2% = 1 ± 2% Ω
o Max R = 1 + 0.02 = 1.02 Ω
o Min R = 1 – 0.02 = .98 Ω
END TO CENTER BAND
SYSTEM
o R = 0.45 ± 10% Ω
o Max R = 0.45 + 0.045 = 0.495 Ω
o Min R = 0.45 – 0.045 = 0.405 Ω
Lesson Plan
02/06
- Temperature co-efficient of resistance
o Positive co-efficient
o Zero co-efficient
o Negative co-efficient
o Examples
o Formula
- Resistance and its relation to wire sizing

o Circular conductor
o American wire gauge
TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF
RESISTANCE (α)
o ‘α’ factor states how much the resistance
changes for a change in temperature.
o This factor ‘α’ is known as temperature

coefficient of temperature.
o Every material has specific constant

value of ‘α’.
α – DEFINATION AND FORMULA
o The increase in resistance per ohm
original resistance per 0C rise in temp.
Rt = R0(1+ α.t)
o Rt = Resistance at higher temperature
o R0 = Resistance at 200C
o t = change in temp above 200C
α - TYPES
o Positive α
o Negative α
o Zero α
o Resistivity of metallic conductors also

increases with rise in temperature and
vice versa.
POSITIVE α
o The rise in temperature increases the
material resistance and vice versa.
o All metals in pure state have positive α.
o Example – tungsten, copper etc.,
o Tungsten α = 0.005
POSITIVE α – EXAMPLE
Q. A tungsten wire has a 14 Ωat 20°C.

Calculate its resistance at 120°C.
Solution;
Rt = R0(1+ α.t)
Rt =14(1+0.005
Rt = 21 Ω
NEGATIVE α
o The rise in temperature decreases
resistance of a material and vice versa.
o Example – semiconductor ( C, Si, Ge)

electrolyte like sulfuric acid & water.
ZERO α
o Resistance is constant with change in
temperature.
o Example – metal alloy constantan and

Manganin.
o They are used in wire wound resistor.

STANDARD WIRE GAGE SIZE
o American wire gage (AWG)
o Gage numbers – size of round wire in

terms of its diameter and cross-sectional
area.
o As the gage numbers increase from 1 to

40, the diameter and circular area
decrease.
AMERICAN WIRE GAGE
o Higher gage numbers indicate thinner
wire sizes and greater the resistance.
o The circular area doubles for every three

gage sizes.
o For example, No. 10 wire has

approximately twice the area of No. 13
wire.
AMERICAN WIRE GAGE
AMERICAN WIRE GAUGE –
COPPER WIRE
COPPER WIRE
COPPER WIRE
COPPER WIRE
COPPER WIRE
CIRCULAR MIL
o The cross-sectional area of round wire is
measured in circular mils (cmil).
o A mil is one-thousandth of an inch =

0.001 in.
o One circular mil is the cross-sectional

area of a wire with a diameter of 1 mil.
CIRCULAR MIL
o Cmil = d2 (mils).
o d = diameter.
o Note that the circular mil is a unit of

area, obtained by squaring the diameter.
o Whereas the mil is a linear unit of length,

equal to one-thousandth of an inch.
CIRCULAR MIL – EXERCISE
o What is the area in circular mils of a wire

with a diameter of 0.005 in.?
Solution;
o Diameter into mil = 0.005
o Circular mil area = d2 = 52 = 25
o Area = 25 cmil
RESISTANCE AND ITS RELATION
TO WIRE SIZING
o If we are given the resistance of a length
of wire with unit cross-sectional area.
We can calculate;
o Resistance of various cross-sectional

area and length of same material wire.
RESISTANCE AND ITS RELATION
TO WIRE SIZING
o A1 = A 2
WIRE SIZING - EXERCISE
Q. L1 =1 meter, A1 = 1 mm2 R1 = 0.017, and
L2 = 50m, A2 = 0.25mm2 than R2 = ?
Solution;
o R2 = 0.017 = 0.034 ohm
Lesson Plan
03/06
Resistor color coding calculations
- Preferred value of resistor
- Wattage rating of resistor as per size
- Resistor in series and parallel
- Calculation of total resistance using series, parallel and series parallel
combination.
RESISTOR – WATTAGE RATINGS
o Resistors are rated according to their

ohmic value and wattage (power).
o Wattage is actually dissipation of heat

when current flows.
o The higher the wattage rating of resistor
the more current it can carry.
o Resistor should have higher wattage

rating, so it becomes less heated up.
o High heat can change the ohmic value.
o Wattage rating depends directly on
physical size of resistor.
o A larger physical size of resistor

indicates a higher power rating.
o Wire-wound resistors has higher wattage

ratings.
RESISTOR – SERIES CONNECTION
o The equivalent resistance is the sum of
all the individual resistances.
o The current through all the resistances

remains the same.
o Power is additive.
RESISTOR – SERIES CONNECTION
Total resistance RT = R1 + R2 + R3 Ohms
Total voltage V T = I x R1 + I x R2 + I x R3
Issue Date: 01.10.2022 Issue-02, Rev: 0

VT = I x RT Volts
M. 03 Sub Module-3.7 Prepared by: R S Sharma Approved by: TM
RESISTOR –PARALLEL
CONNECTION
o Total resistance is less than least .
o Different resistors have their individual

current.
o The same voltage acts across all

resistors.
RESISTOR –PARALLEL
CONNECTION
1
𝑅𝑇 =
1 1 1 1
+ + +…
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅 3 𝑅𝑁
RESISTOR – SERIES-PARALLEL
CONNECTION
o Resistance value can be calculated by

applying individual series and parallel cn.
o Equivalent resistance can be calculated

by converting ckt into series connection.
RESISTOR – SERIES-PARALLEL
CONNECTION
Lesson Plan
04/06
Types of resistor – fixed and variable
- Fixed type resistor
o Wire wound resistor
o Carbon composition
o Carbon film
o Metal film
o Metal gaze
TYPES OF RESISTOR
1. Fixed type
2. Variable type
FIXED TYPE RESISTOR
o Wire wound resistor

o Carbon composition
o Carbon film
o Metal film
o Metal gaze
WIRE WOUND RESISTOR
WIRE WOUND RESISTOR
WIRE WOUND RESISTOR
WIRE WOUND RESISTOR
o Wire used are tungsten and manganin.
o Wire is wrapped around insulating core –

porcelain, cement, paper etc.
o The length of wire and resistivity

determines the resistance of a unit.
WIRE WOUND RESISTOR
o The entire assemble is covered or coated
with a ceramic material or vitreous
enamel.
o Wattage rating – 5W to several hundred

watt
o Ohmic value - 1 ohm to 100k ohm
WIRE WOUND RESISTOR – USES
o In large power dissipation circuits.
o Precise and stable resistance values.
WIRE WOUND RESISTOR – USES
Examples;
o Precision resistors for the function of an

ammeter shunt.
o Precision potentiometer to adjust for an

exact amount of R.
CARBON COMPOSITION RESISTOR
o It consists finely divided carbon or
graphite.
o They are mixed with a insulating material

(ceramic) which acts like binder.
o They are enclosed in plastic case for

insulation and mechanical strength.
o The resistance depends on the ratio of
carbon added to ceramic.
o The two ends resistor are metal caps

with leads of tinned copper (axial leads).
o Power rating - 1/10, 1/8, 1/4, 1 to 2 watts
or less
o Ohmic values – 1Ω to 20 MΩ
o The carbon resistors are preferred as
they are cheap and small.
o They are identified by their equal

diameter through out.
o Larger the diameter more the power

rating.
FILM TYPE RESISTOR
o Carbon film
o Metal film
o Metal oxide
o Metal gaze
CARBON FILM RESISTOR
o It is made by depositing a thin layer of
carbon on an insulated substrate.
o The carbon film is then cut in the form of

a spiral to form the resistive element.
o These resistors can withstand at higher

temperatures without any damage.
CARBON FLIM RESISTOR –
ADVANTAGES
o They have tighter tolerances.
o They are less sensitive to temperature

changes and aging.
o They generate less noise internally.
METAL FLIM – RESISTOR
o Its construction is similar to carbon film
resistor.
o A thin film of metal is sprayed onto a

ceramic substrate.
o It is then cut in the form of a spiral.

o Length, thickness, and width of the metal
spiral determine the resistance value.
o These resistor gives more precise value

than carbon film.
METAL OXIDE – RESISTOR
o Thin film of metal oxide like tin oxide is
deposited on ceramic rode.
o They have better power ratings and

voltage ratings.
o They have better overload capabilities

surge
o They have better high temperature
ratings than other resistor.
METAL GAZE RESISTOR
METAL GAZE RESISTOR
METAL GAZE RESISTOR
o It consists of a metal glass mixture as a
thick film on a ceramic substrate.
o They are then fired to form a thick film.
o Metals particles consists of silver and

palladium.
METAL GAZE RESISTOR
o The value of resistance depends on

amount of the metal in the mixture.
o Metal glaze resistors have zero

temperature co-efficient of resistance.
Lesson Plan
05/06
Variable resistor – Rheostat
and Potentiometer Potentiometer
- Rheostat o Construction
o Construction o Operation
o Operation o Uses
o Uses o Connection in circuit
o Connection in circuit o Linear potentiometer
-
o Tapered potentiometer
VARIABLE RESISTOR
o It can be of either wire wound or carbon
type.
o Resistance can be varied with the help

of wiper.
o Resistive element can be either circular

or straight.
VARIABLE RESISTOR - SYMBOL
VARIABLE RESISTOR – TAPER
CONTROLS
o The way R varies with shaft rotation is
called the taper of the control.
o Linear Taper – R changes directly

proportional to rotation.
o Non-linear taper – R changes are not

equal in each end.
VARIABLE RESISTOR – TAPER
CONTROLS
o This effect is accomplished by different
densities of carbon.
VARIABLE RESISTOR
o Rheostat
o Potentiometer
RHEOSTAT
o It used to vary the amount of current

flowing in a circuit.
o It has two termnals.
o It connected in series with an ordinary

resistance in a series circuit
RHEOSTAT - SYMBOL
RHEOSTAT
RHEOSTAT
RHEOSTAT
POTENTIOMETER
o It is a three terminal device.
o It is used for varying voltage in a circuit.
o It is connect parallel in circuit.
POTENTIOMETER
o The applied V is input to the two end
terminals of the potentiometer.
o The variable V is output between the

variable arm and an end terminal.
POTENTIOMETER – SYMBOL
POTENTIOMETER
VARIABLE RESISTOR –
POTENTIOMETER
VARIABLE RESISTOR –
POTENTIOMETER
LINEAR POTENTIOMETER
NON-LINEAR POTENTIOMETER
Lesson Plan
06/06
Varying the Resistance
- Wheatstone bridge
- Thermistor o Construction
o Workings o Workings
o Circuit symbols o Finding unknown
resistance
o Uses in aircraft
- Photocells
o Workings
o Circuit symbols
THERMISTOR
o It is a thermally sensitive resistor.
o Its resistance value changes with

changes in operating temperature.
o Resistance value is also changed by

heating effect of current.
THERMISTOR
o It is basically a semiconductor exhibiting

either positive α or negative α.
o Change in resistance depends upon size

and construction.
THERMISTOR
o Small mass thermistor resistance

changes rapidly than large mass.
o Types of shape include – beads, rods,

disks and washers.
THERMISTOR - SYMBOL
THERMISTOR - SYMBOL
PHOTORESISTOR
o It consists ceramic base with
semiconductor above it.
o A glass window is place over

semiconductor for light to enter.
o Resistance depends on intensity of light.
o It is mainly used as a photodetector.

PHOTOCONDUCTIVE CELL
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
o It is used for finding resistance value of
resistor.
o It consists of resistor connected in

series-parallel.
o 2 resistor are fixed, 1 is variable type

and one is unknown.
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
o At balanced condition current in M1 = 0
o Rx = R s
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE –
APPLICATION
o It is used for temperature measurement.
o The sensing probe is connected in place

of unknown resistance.
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE –
APPLICATION

3.7 Resistance Resistor

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M.

o It resists or opposes the flow of current

o It produces a desired drop in voltage in a

o Its power/wattage rating is determined

o Its ohmic value range from fraction of to

o It does not have polarity.

o So it can be connect any way in a circuit.

o It is mainly responsible for dissipating

o A conductor is said to have resistance of

o It varies inversely as the cross section

o It depends on nature of the material.

o It is denoted by symbol ‘ρ’.

o SI unit for resistivity is ohm meter.

o Higher value of ‘ρ’ means more

o Different colors has been assigned a

In resistor color code systems;

o Three color bands – indicate the

o Fourth color band – indicate the

There are two types of resistor color coding

o End-to-Centre Band System.

o End color – 2nd digit of ohmic value

o Dot color – no. of zeros to be added

o Ring color – tolerance

o No ring – 20% tolerance

o Max R = 250 000 Ω + 50 000 Ω

o Min R = 250 000 Ω – 50 000 Ω

o Resistor with four bands.

o Max R = 94 600 ohms

o Min R = 77 400 ohms

o Max R = 2 550 ohms

o Min R = 2 450 ohms

o If the third band is gold in color, the first

o If the third band is silver in color, the first

- Resistance and its relation to wire sizing

o This factor ‘α’ is known as temperature

o Every material has specific constant

o Rt = Resistance at higher temperature

o Resistivity of metallic conductors also

o All metals in pure state have positive α.

o Example – tungsten, copper etc.,

Q. A tungsten wire has a 14 Ωat 20°C.

o Example – semiconductor ( C, Si, Ge)

o Example – metal alloy constantan and

o They are used in wire wound resistor.

o Gage numbers – size of round wire in

o As the gage numbers increase from 1 to

o The circular area doubles for every three

o For example, No. 10 wire has

o A mil is one-thousandth of an inch =

o One circular mil is the cross-sectional

o Note that the circular mil is a unit of

o Whereas the mil is a linear unit of length,

o What is the area in circular mils of a wire

o Resistance of various cross-sectional

Q. L1 =1 meter, A1 = 1 mm2 R1 = 0.017, and

L2 = 50m, A2 = 0.25mm2 than R2 = ?

o Resistors are rated according to their

o Wattage is actually dissipation of heat

o Resistor should have higher wattage

o High heat can change the ohmic value.

o A larger physical size of resistor

o Wire-wound resistors has higher wattage

o The current through all the resistances