COURSE TITILE: HISTORY OF ETHIOPIA AND

THE HORN (Course Code: Hist. 1012)

 The purpose of the course:
• to help students know the history of Ethiopia
& the Horn from ancient times to 1995 as a
base for shaping & bettering the future.
• The first unit defines history, describes why
history is important, how history is studied &
introdusces the region of Ethiopia &the Horn.
 A. Nature of History
• Defn. Of history
• The term hist. Derived from a Greek word Istoria,
means ‘inquiry’ or ‘an accounts of one’s inquiry
• The purpose of historical study is not simply to
produce a mere list of chronological events about the
deeds of the dead but to find patterns & establish
meaning through the rigorous study & interpretation
of surviving records
• Ordinary defn of history: all things that happened in
the human past.
 Conti...
The term first used by the Greek historian Herodotus/484-425B.C/
• history is a branch of knowledge that deals with past events and
deedsafter human society started to keep records. But Prehistory studies
past events before human society started art of writing.
• after human society started to keep records.
 Some facts are kept in writing
 Other events exist independently of the historian & still awaits to be
recorded
• Historians apply their expertise to surviving records & write history in
the form of accounts of the past
• Academic defn. Hist. is an organized and systematic study of the past. Or
History is a systematic study and organized knowledge of the past.
However what actually happened in the past is infinite/limitless/.
 Conti...
 Both history & other displines study of human society and its
interaction with natural environment
 Their difference is that:
• The major concern of history is the study of humans’ interaction
with the natural environment in the past, but the other
disciplines do it in the present. Man interacts with the natural
environment to produce his primary needs such as food, shelter
and cloth.
• Since hist. covers long period, the historians organize in discrete
period
• Accordingly, history is conventionally divided into ancient,
medieval & modern history.
 They put events chronologically using periodization
 Conti...
• “Story” and “history” deal with people and
events of the past. Both take the form of
narrative. History deals with real people and
real events of the past.
• Story can be told imaginatively about people
and events that did not actually exist.
 Conti...
 Perdn- is one of the key characteristics of the discipline
A. Uses of History
1. Hist. For better understanding the present
 Hist. is only the important storehouse of information &
helps us to know how people behaved & acted in the past.
 It is difficult to know problems that face humanity & society
today w/t tracing their origins in the past.
• 2. Hist. provides us a sense of identity-
• to understand who we are & where we fit in the world.
• It is only through sense of hist. that communities define their
identity & their r/ships with the past & with other societies
 Conti...
3. Hist. helps us to understand the basic b/ground of other
disciplines such as literature, art, philosophy, religion, sociology,
political science...etc.
4. Hist. teaches critical skills:- helps to develop key research skills
5.Hist. for tolerance & open-minded- Most of us have a tendency
to regard our own cultural practices, styles, & values as right &
proper
• Studying d/t societies in the past is like going to a foreign
countries w/c contributes to free ourselves from some of our
inherent cultural provincialism.
6. History Supplies Endless Source of Fascination:- studying hist.
gives us excitement & another perspective on our life & society
as we explore different events in the past
 Two types of historical sources
 Primary Sources:- are original, reliable or 1st hand
information & have proximity to the events the describe
both in time & space.
Ex’ps:- manuscripts(handwritten material), diaries, letters,
minutes, court records & administrative files, travel
documents, photographs, maps, video & audiovisual
materials & artefacts such as coins, fossils, weapons,
utensils & buildings
2. Secondary sources:- second-hand published accounts
about the past. Exp. Articles, books, textbooks, biographies
& published stories or movies about historical events.
 Conti...
 Oral accounts/ data/ information
• Oral data may lose its originality & authenticity
due to distortion through time-it should be
crosschecked with other sources
• In general, no history work can be taken as final-
new sources bring new insights.
Historiography of Ethiopia & the
Horn
HISTORIOGRAHY
 Historiography
• Defn. can be defined as the history of historical
writing
• Historiography refers to the history of history
• the principles, theory and history of historical writing
• how knowledge of the past, either recent or distant, is
obtained and transmitted.
• The organized study & narration of the past was
introduced by ancient Greek historians notably
Herodotus (c. 484–425 B.C.E.) & Thucydides (c.455-
400 B.C.E.)
 Conti...
• The Chinese also offered the tradition of writing
about the past particularly during the Han dynasty by
Sima Qian(145-86 B.C) & also the oldest written
history discovered in China that written at about
1000B.C.
• History emerged as an academic discipline in the 2 nd
half of the 19th century first in Europe & then latter in
USA.
• A German historian, Leopold Von Ranke (1795–1886),
&his colleagues established history as an independent
discipline in Berlin
 Conti...
• Ranke, his colleagues & other historians
collect evidence of past events, evaluate that
evidence, present a meaningful discussion of
the subject.
• B/se of his great contribution to the scientific
study of the past, Ranke is considered as the
“father of modern historiography.”
•
The Study of Ethiopian History & the
Horn
• during the past hundred years-exploring
significant transformations in historical writing.
• earlier forms of historiography (historical writing)-
The earliest known reference on history of Ethiopia
and the Horn is the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea,
written in the 1st A.D by an anonymous author.
• Another document is the Christian Topography
composed by Cosmas Indicopleustes, a Greek
sailor, in the 6thc A.D. describes Aksum’s trade &
the then Aksumite king’s campaigns on both sides
of the sea
 Conti...
• Inscriptions written in the 7thc A.D- found in
Abba Gerima monastery in Yeha/Tigrai/.
• a manuscript discovered in Haiq Istifanos
monastery of present day Wollo witten in the
13th A.D. The value of manuscripts is essentially
religious. However, they have the benefit of
providing insights into the country’s past.
• The manuscript cited above contains the list of
medieval kings & their history in brief.
 Conti...
• Hagiographies-originated from Ethiopian
Orthodox church(EOC).
• They are largest groups of sources available for
medieval Ethiopian history.
• written in Ge’ez,
• their function is enhancing the prestige of saints.
• They discussed in detail about dev’nt of the
church & the state including territorial conquests
by reigning monarchs.
 Conti...
• There was also hagiographical tradition among
Muslim communities of the country.
• One such account offers tremendous insight into
the life of a Muslim saint, Shaykh Ja’far Bukko of
Gattira, in present day Wollo, in the late 19th c
• the saint’s life, the dev’t of indigenous Islam &
contacts b/n the region’s Muslim community &
the outside world are the issues discussed in
this document.
 Conti...
• Chronicles- are an indigenous tradition of history
writing in Ethiopia
• Chronicles in Ge’ez tongue first appeared in the 14th
c & continue (sometimes in Amharic) into the early
20thc.
• They were written by court scribes or clergymen of
recognized clerical training & calligraphic skills
appointed by the kings & their successors
• The earliest chronicles are about Glorious Victories
of Amde-Tsion & the last of the chronicles are that of
Abeto Iyasu & Empress Zewditu.
 Conti...
• Chronicles incorporate both legends & facts- about the
monarch’s genealogy, upbringing, military exploits/deeds/,
piety & statesmanship/wise, skilled & respected gov’t leader/
• Chronicles -known for their factual detail & strong
chronological framework
• chronicles explain historical events mainly in religious terms-
offer little about social & economic developments of the
time
• However, in conjunction with other varieties of written
documents, like hagiographies, travel accounts by foreign
observers, chronicles can provide us important insights the
history of kings, their preoccupations & relations with
subordinate officials & little about the evolution of the
Ethiopian state &society.
 Conti...
• Accounts of Arabic-speaking visitors to the coast
• al-Masudi & Ibn Battuta described the culture, language &
import-export trade in the main central region of the east
African coast in the 10th & in the 14th centuries respectively
• Yemeni writers who were eyewitnesses to the events they
described were
• 1. Shihab ad-Din-composed the first document entitled Futuh
al Habesha.
• He recorded about the conflict b/n the Christian kgdm & the
Muslim principalities in the 16th c, the conquest of northern &
central Ethiopia by Imam Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi & major
towns & their inhabitants in the s.eastern part of Ethiopia until
1535.
 Conti...
• 2. Al-Haymi- left to us the first-hand account
• he led a Yemeni delegation to the court of Fasiledes (r. 1632-67)
in 1647
• Abba Bahrey’s-Geez script on the Oromo written in 1593(16th c)
• Despite its limitations, his document provides us with first-hand
information about the Oromo ppn mov’t & the Gadaa System
• European missionaries(Catholics and Protestants) & travelers
also contributed to the development of Ethiopian historiography
from the early 16th until the late 19th centuries
• the missionaries’ sources provide us with valuable information
w/c include religious & political dev’ts within Ethiopia, and the
country’s foreign relations.
 Cont...
• Example, The Prester John of the Indies, composed by a
Portuguese priest, Francisco Alvarez who came with the
Portuguese mission to the court of Lebne-Dengel in 1520.
• travel documents of James Bruce’s who Traveled to
discover the Source of the Nile.
• Both the missionaries & travelers’ materials can only be
used with considerable reservations & with care for they
are socially & politically biased.
• Foreign writers-on Ethiopian studies
• A German, Hiob Ludolf (1624-1704 -he was the founder
of Ethiopian studies in Europe in the 17thc
 Conti...
• He wrote a New History of Ethiopia.
• Ludolf never visited Ethiopia; he wrote the country’s history largely
based on information he collected from an Ethiopian priest named
Abba Gorgorios (Abba Gregory) who was in Europe at that time.
• In the 19th c ,August Dillman published two studies on ancient
Ethiopian history.
• Compared to Ludolf, Dillman demonstrated all markers of
objectivity in his historical research endeavors.
• In the early 20th c.- the emergence of traditional Ethiopian writers
who made conscious efforts to distance themselves from
chroniclers.
• These writers include Aleqa Taye GebreMariam, Aleqa Asme
Giorgis & Debtera Fisseha-Giorgis Abyezgi
 Conti...
• Negadrases Afework Gebre-Iyesus & Gebre-Hiwot
Baykedagn later joined them.
• Unlike chroniclers, the above writers dealt with a range of
topics from social justice, administrative reform &
economic analysis to history.
• Taye & Fisseha-Giorgis -wrote books on the history of
Ethiopia but
• Aleqa Asme Giorgis-produced a similar work on the
Oromo people
• Afework Gebre-Iyesus-wrote the first Amharic novel,
Tobiya, in Ethiopian history
 Conti..
• Gebre-Hiwot Baykedagn-wrote Atse Menilekna Ityopia
(Emperor Menilek and Ethiopia) & Mengistna Yehizb
Astedader (Government & Public Administration) to his name.
• Blatten Geta Hiruy Wolde-Selassie was the most prolific
writer of the early 20th c history of Ethiopia
• He published 4 major works namely Ethiopiana Metema
(Ethiopia & Metema), Wazema (Eve), Yehiwot Tarik (A
Biographical Dictionary) & Yeityopia Tarik (A History of
Ethiopia).
• In contrast to their predecessors, Gebre-Hiwot & Hiruy
exhibited relative objectivity & methodological sophistication
in their works
 Conti...
• It was the Italian occupation of Ethiopia that
interrupted the early experiment in modern history
writing & publications.
• After liberation, Tekle-Tsadik Mekuria formed a
bridge b/n writers in pre-1935 & Ethiopia
professional historians who came after him.
• Tekle-Tsadik has published about eight historical
works. He made better evaluation of his sources
than his predecessors.
• Yilma Deressa’s Ye Ityopiya Tarik Be’asra Sidistegnaw
Kifle Zemen(A History of Ethiopia in the 16th C).
 Conti...
• His book addresses the Oromo ppn mov’t & the wars
b/n the Christian kingdom & the Muslim sultanates as
its main subjects.
• Blatten Geta Mahteme-Selassie Wolde-Meskel
-wrote Zikre Neger.
• Zikre Neger is a comprehensive account of Ethiopia’s
prewar land tenure systems & taxation
• Gebre-Wold Engidawork- his work deals specifically
with aspects of land tenure
• Dejz Kebede Tesema-wrote his memoir of the imperial
period, published as Yetarik Mastawesha in 1962 E.C.
 Conti...
• The 1960s was a crucial decade in the dev’t of Ethiopian
historiography b/se history emerged as an academic
discipline
• The pursuit of historical studies as a full-time occupation
began with the opening of the Department of History in
1963 at the then Haile Selassie I University (HSIU)
• BA theses began in HSIU towards the end of the decade. The
Department launched its MA and PhD programs in 1979 and
1990 respectively.
• The Institute of Ethiopian Studies (IES) is institutional home
of professional historiography of Ethiopia.
• The IES was founded in 1963
 Conti...
• Richard Pankhurst/A British-Ethiopian Scholar/
was the first Director & founding member of the
IES
• Pankhurst’s prolific publication record remains
unmatched
• He has authored or co-authored twenty-two books
& produced several hundred articles on Ethiopia.
• Since its foundation, the IES has been publishing
the Journal of Ethiopian Studies for the
dissemination of historical research.
 Conti...
• The professionalization of History of the Horn in post-colonial
period
• Independent nations began exploring their own past quickly
• The decolonization of African historiography required new
methodological approach (tools of investigation) to the study
of the past that involved a critical use of oral data & tapping
the percepts of ancillary disciplines like archeology,
anthropology & linguistics
• European intellectuals’ own discomfort with the Euro-
centrism of previous scholarship provided for the intensive
academic study of African history, an innovation that had
spread to North America by the 1960s.
 Conti...
• Foundational research was done at the School
of Oriental & African Studies (SOAS) in London
& the Department of History at the University
of Wisconsin-Madison. F
 2. PEOPLES AND CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
Introduction
 Human evolution-had been formed through gradual
natural process since about (circa/c.) 4. 5 billion years
before present (B. P.)
 The earliest life came into being b/n 3 and 1 bil yrs B.P
 Blue green algae, small plants, fishes, birds & other
small beings emerged at c. 800 mil yrs B. P.
 Primates branched of placental mammal stream as of
200-170 mil yrs B. P.
 some primates developed into Pongidae (such as
gorilla, chimpanzee, orangutan, gibbon etc) while others
evolved into Hominidae (human ancestors).
 Conti...
• East African Rift Valley as the cradle of humanity
• both biological & cultural evolution have been
discovered in the Lower Omo & Middle Awash River
valleys both by Ethiopian & foreign scholars
• A fossil named Chororapithecus dated 10 mil B. P.
was unearthed in Anchar (in West Hararghe) in 2007.
• Ardipithicus ramidus kadabba (dated 5.8-5.2 mil yrs
BP) was discovered in Middle Awash
• Ardipithicus ramidus (dated 4. 2 mil B.P.) was
discovered at Aramis in Afar in 1994.
 Conti...
• Other Australopithecines were uncovered at
Belohdelie (dated back 3.6 mil yrs B. P.) in Middle
Awash
• A 3 yrs old child’s fossil named as Australopithecus
afarensis, Selam, dated to 3.3 mil yrs B.P was also
discovered at Dikika, Mille, Afar in 2000.
• Australopithecus afarnesis (Lucy/Dinkinesh, dated
c. 3.18 mil yrs B. P.) with 40% complete body parts,
weight 30kg, height 1.07 meters-discovered at
Hadar in Afar in 1974 A. D.
 Conti...
• The dev’t of the human brain led to the emergence of
human evolution, w/c produced the genus Homo, believed
to have emerged 2-2.5 mil yrs B.P.
• Genus Home has three branches:-
• Homo habilis, w/c is derived from Latin terms "Homo"
(human being) & "Habilis" (skillful use of hands), dated 1.9
million years B. P.-found in the Lower Omo.
• Homo erectus (walking upright, dated 1. 6 mil yrs B. P.) was
discovered at Melka Kunture, Konso Gardula & Gadeb with
900-1100 cc brain size
• Homo erectus-originated in Africa & then spread out to the
rest of the world.
 Conti...
• Archaic Homosapiens (knowledgeable human
being, dated 400, 000 yrs B.P.) named Bodo with
brain size of 1300-1400cc was discovered in
Middle Awash.
• Fossils of Homo sapiens (100, 000 yrs B.P.) were
discovered at Porc Epic near Dire Dawa, & Kibish
around Lower Omo (in 1967).
• In 2004, Kibish fossils were re-dated to 195, 000 B.
P, the oldest date in the world for modern Homo
sapiens. Homo sapiens idaltu, found in Middle
Awash in 1997, lived about 160, 000 years B.P.
 Conti...
• Cultural evolution-technological changes that brought
socio-economic transformation on human life
• C.Evn- grouped in to Stone Age, Bronze Age & Iron Age.
• Stone tools had been the first technologies to be
developed by human beings.
• stone tools can be grouped in to Mode I (Olduwan, w/c
was named based on the first report made at Olduvai
Gorge, Tanzania), Mode II (Acheulean, named after the
first report at St. Acheul, France) & Mode III (Sangoon).
1. Mode I stone tools-characterized by crude & mono-
facial styles, & were produced by the direct percussion
 Conti...
• the oldest evidence of stone tool in the world found
at Dikika in 2010.
• Artifact findings suggest that Olduwan tools(Mode I)
made & used by Homo habilis were discovered near
Gona (dated 2.52 milyrs B.P. in 1992) & at Shungura
in Afar
• 2. Mode II (Acheulean, named after the first report
at St. Acheul, France)
• Mode II stone tools were produced by indirect
percussion, by using hand-ax or hammer, & mainly
characterized by bifacial, pointed & convex features.
 Conti...
• Homo erectus-produced Acheulean tools dated back to
1.7.mil yrs B.P, invented fire & started burial practice
• Acheulian tools were found at Kella, Middle Awash in
1963.
• Mode III (Sangoon)-stone tools are characterized by
flexible & fine form of production by the use of obsidian.
• Homo sapiens produced Sangoon tools that trace back
up to 300,000 yrs B. P. Gademotta site in central
Ethiopian Rift Valley has been dated back to 200, 000
• In general, Gorgora, Ki’one & Yabello in Ethiopia &
Midhidhishi & Gudgud in Somalia have offered
noteworthy information about Stone Age communities.
 Conti...
• The period of stone tools divided into 3 sub-Ages
• 1. the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age, from 3.4 mil to 11, 000
yrs B. P.) was the period when human being sheltered in
caves, developed language, & used stone , bone, wood,
furs, & skin materials to prepare food & clothing.
• There was sex-age labor division with able-bodied males
as hunters of fauna, & children & females as gatherers of
flora
• 2. Mesolithic (M.S.Age /11, 000-10,000 B. P.) was
transition b/n Paleolithic & Neolithic Age
• 3. Neolithic (N.S.Age /10, 000-6, 000 B.P).
 Conti...
• 2.2. Neolithic Revolution
• In the Neolithic Age:-
 human beings transformed from mobile to sedentary way of life
 changes from hunting & gathering to the domestication of
plants & animals.
 The process of domestication took place independently in the
various parts of the world.
 In Ethiopia & the Horn chiefly in the more elevated & wetter-
parts, people cultivated plants including Teff, dagussa, nug ,
enset etc.
 The domestication of enset plant reduced shifting cultivation
(continuous clearing of new plots), slowing down soil
exhaustion.
 Conti...
• The discovery of polished axes, ceramics, grinding stones,
beads, stone figures & animal remains in sites like Emba-
Fakeda around Adigrat in Tigray as well as Aqordat &
Barentu in Eritrea evinces the existence of Neolithic
material culture
• The Gobodara rock shelter near Aksum has provided us
agricultural stone tools.
• Remains associated with domesticated cattle, chickpeas &
vegetables have been excavated from Lalibela Cave
• Stone tools used for cutting-found at Laga Oda rock shelter
near Charchar
• Evidence for domesticated cattle also comes from around
Lake Basaqa near Matahara
 Conti...
• Eth. & the Horn marked by ethnic & linguistic diversity
• There are about 90 languages with 200 dialects in this region
• Linguists classify languages of the region into 2 major
language super families.
• These are Afro-Asiatic & Nilo-Saharan.
• A. Afro-Asiatic: this super family is sub-divided into the
followingfamilies:
• Cushitic: linguists divided this language family into 4
branches:
• 1. Northern: is represented by Beja, spoken in Nwrn Eritrea
bordering the Sudan.
• 2. Central: Agaw includes Awign, Kunfel, Qimant; Hamtanga
and Bilen.
 Conti...
• 3. Eastern: includes diversified linguistic groups like Afar, Ale,
Arbore, Baiso, Burji, Darashe, Dasanech, Gedeo, Hadiya,
Halaba, Kambata, Konso, Libido, Mosiye, Oromo, Saho,
Sidama, Somali, Tambaro, Tsemai, etc.
• 4. Southern: represented by Dhalo in Kenya & Nbugua in
Tanzania.
• Semitic:-divided into 2:
• 1. North: Ge'ez, Rashaida (spoken around Eritrea-Sudanese
border); Tigre (spoken in Eritrean Lowland); Tigrigna (spoken in
highland Eritrea and Tigray).
• 2. South: is further divided into 2
• a. Transverse: Amharic, Argoba, Harari, Silte, Wolane & Zay.
• b. Outer: Gafat (extinct), Gurage & Mesmes (endangered).
 Conti...
• Omotic: Anfillo, Ari, Banna, Basketo, Bench, Boro-Shinasha,
Chara, Dawuro, Dime, Dizi, Gamo, Gofa, Hamer, Karo, Keficho,
Konta, Korete, Male, Melo, Oyda, Sezo, Shekkacho, Sheko,
Wolayta, Yem, Zayse etc.
• B. Nilo-Saharan: AnywaK, Berta, Gumuz, Kacipo-Balesi, Komo,
Kunama, Kwama, Kwegu, Majang, Mi'en, Murle, Mursi, Nara,
Nu’er, Nyangatom, Opo, Shabo, Suri and Uduk.
• In general Factors like population mov’nts, warfare, trade,
religious & territorial expansion, urbanization etc. have resulted
in intense linguistic processes that forced languages to be
affected.
• some languages died out or in danger of extinction while others
thrived over time .
 Conti...
• 2.3.2. Settlement Patterns
• Based on historical linguistic & hist. of inter-peoples
relations, studies indicate that environmental, socio-
economic, & political processes significantly shaped &
reshaped the spatialdistribution of peoples in the region.
• the Cushitic & Semitic peoples had inhabited the area
b/n the Red Sea in the east & Blue Nile in the west from
where they dispersed to different directions.
• the Cushites have evolved to be the largest linguistic
group in Ethiopia & also spread over wide areas from
Sudan to Tanzania
 Conti...
• the Semitic peoples spread over large area & eventually
settled the northern, north central, northeastern, south
central & eastern parts of Ethiopia and the Horn.
• The Semites are the 2nd majority people next to the
Cushites.
• the majority of Omotic peoples have inhabited southwn
Ethiopia along the Omo River basin except the Shinasha-
live in Benishangul-Gumuz & the South Mao in Wallagga
• the Nilotes are largely settled along the Ethio-Sudanese
border although some of the Chari-Nile family inhabited
as far as southern Omo
 Conti...
• the Chari-Nile family are also identified as the
Karamojo cluster living around Turkana Lake
along Ethio-Kenyan border.
•
 2.4. Religion and Religious Processes

• 2.4.1. Indigenous Religion-religious beliefs & practices native

to the region & have been followed by the local people since
ancient times
• 1. Waqeffanna-the Oromo is based on the existence of one
Supreme Being called Waqa-manifested through the spirits
called Ayyana
• The major spirits include:-
• Abdar/Dache (soil fertility spirit), Atete (women or human &
animal fertility spirit),
• Awayi/Tiyyana (sanctity spirit), Balas (victory spirit),
Chato/Dora (wild animals defender),
• Gijare/ Nabi (father & mother’s sprit), Jaricha (peace spirit),
Qasa (anti-disease spirit) etc.
 Conti...
• According to the Oromo belief the dead exist in the form of a
ghost called Ekera in the surrounding of his/her abode after death
• In the autumn season every year at the edge of ever-flowing river
there is thanks giving festival called Irrecha besides New Year
(Birbo) rite.
• spring season at the top of mountain-praying
• Qallu (male) & Qallitti (female) have maintained link b/n the
Ayyanathe believers.
• Qallu's ritual house called galma is located on hilltop or in the
groves of large trees.
• The Jila/Makkala (delegated messengers) used to make
pilgrimage to get consecration of senior Qallu (Abba Muda or
anointment father) until about 1900.
 Conti..
• Waa:- supreme Being among the Hadya-believed to
exist before everything/hundam issancho/ or
created world (qoccancho) .
• The eyes of Waa represented by elincho/sun/ &
agana/moon/ -Spirits like Jara(male’s protectors),
Idato(females guard)...
• Among the Hadya clans, Worqimiene- believed to
have the power to send rain in drought.
• The Kanbata-have Negitaor Aricho Magano(Sky
God) & the religious officials-known as Magnancho
 Conti...
• The Gedeo called the Supreme Being-Mageno
• Their thanks giving called Deraro
• The Konso religion centered on worship of Waaq/Wakh
• The Gojjam Agaw called their Suprem Being-Diban.
• Gurage’s Supreme Diety-Waq/Goita. Bozha-/thunder
God/, Damwamwit/health Godess/
• Abba at Enar-the common deity of Gurage & Yem
• The Yem-worshipped Ha’o/Sky God
 Conti...
• The Konta’ spirit-Docho
• Tosa-the name Supreme Being among the Wolayta.
Spirit Ayyana include-Tawa-Awa/Moytiliya/-
father’s spirit Sawuna/justice spirit/...etc.
• Annul worship of spirits was performed at a sacred
place called Mitta usually at the end of May & the
beginning of June to offer sacrifices of the fruits
called Teramo or Pageta/Dubushu/
• Yero:- Supreme Being among Kafficho. Eqo/spirit/
 Conti...
& a person who hosts Eqo is called Alamo or eke-nayo. Father
of all spirits is dochi or dehe-tateno & its host is called dochi-
nayo or Ibedechino
Iqa:- super natural being among the Boro-Shinasha people.
Some of the prayer rituals among Shinasha were
a. Gure Shuka:- for preservation of their locality through
slaughtering animals by calling the name of God at the top
of mountain
b. Shode De’na:- praying through slaughtering to stop
unexpected disease
3. Marrowa Shuka :- slaughtering for the protection of child
from disease & evil spirit & other productivities.
 Conti...
• The Nuer believe in Kuoth Nhial (God in Heaven).
The believe in the coming of God through rain,
lightening & thunder, & rainbow is necklace of God.
Sun, moon & other entities are also seen as
manifestation of God.
2.4.2. Judaism-(meaning)-a religion developed among
the ancient Hebrews & Characterized by belief in
one God who has revealed Himself to Abraham,
Mosses & the Hebrew prophets & by a religious life
in accordance Scriptures Rabbinic traditions.
 Conti...
Judaism:- is also considered as the covenant that
Yahweh/Jehovah God made with Jews(Hebrew).
-followed by peoples in Ethiopia & the Horn before Christianity
reached the region
• In the 4th c A.D, the Beta-Israel refused to accept Christianity.
• They had been practiced the Israelite religion d/t from
Rabbinic Judaism. Rabbinic-teaching & traditions of the Jews
• According to their own sources, the Beta-Israel stem from the
very migration of some portion of the tribe of Dan to Ethiopia
led by sons of Moses might be even in the time of the
Exodus(1400-1200) B.C
 Conti...
• Other Beta-Israel take as their basis the account of return to
Ethiopia of Menelik I, believed to be son of Solomon of
Israel(r.974-932) & Makeda / Queen Sheba(Sheba).
• Others probably came led by Azonos & Phinhas in 6th c A.D.
• In general, the Jewish developed & lived for centuries Nn &
Nwn Eth.
2.4.3 Christianity:- King Ezana (r. 320-360) converted to
Christianity by two Syrian brothers, Aedesius & Frementius
(Fremnatos).
• When Fremnatos (Kasate Birhane or Abba Selama) visited
Alexandria, Patriarch Atnatewos (328-373) appointed him as the
first Bishop EOC.
 Conti...
• Then, Ethiopia continued to get its bishops from Coptic Church
of in Egypt until 1959 when Abune Baslios became the 1st
Ethiopian Patriarch.
• During the reign of Ella Amida II (478-486) Christianity was
expanded to the mass of the society in the later part of the 5th
c, by the Nine saints who translated Bible & other religious
books into Ge’ez
Table I: The Nine Saints
• Name Origin Church/Monastery Location of the Church
1. Abuna Aregawwi (Abba Za Mika’el) Constantinopole Debre
Damo Eastern Tigray
2. Abuna Isaq (Abba Gerima) Constantinopole Debre Gerima
Medera (East of Adwa )
 Conti...
3. Abba Pentelwon Constantinopole Debre Pentelwon
Asbo (North East of Aksum)
4. Abba Afse Ladocia Debre Afse Yeha (Northeast of
Aksum)
5. Abba Alef Qa’esare’a Debre Haleluya Biheza (Northeast
of Aksum)
6. Abba Gubba Cilicia Debre Gubba West of Medera
7. Abba Liqanos Constantinople Debre Qonasel North of
Aksum
8. Abba Sehama Antioch Tsedania Southeast of Adwa
9. Abba Yima’ata Qosa’iti Debre Yima’ata Ger’alta
 Conti...
• In Zagwe period (1150-1270), many churches &
monasteries were constructed including Rock-hewn
churches of Lalibella, Debra-Bizan of Hamasen in Eritrea;
Debra-Hayiq in Wollo, Debre-Dima & Debre-Werq in
Gojjam;Debra-Libanos in Shewa, Birbir Mariam in Gamo &
Debre-Asabot on the way to Harar.
 The religious centres have been served as depository of
ancient Manuscripts & objects of arts.
• In the mid 16th c The catholic missionaries (Jesuits) tried to
convert Monophysites EOC to Dyophysite Catholic.
• And other missionaries came to Ethiopia since 1804. They
were:-
 Conti...
• The Catholic Giuseppe Sapeto (Lazarist mission founder),
Giustino De Jacobis (Capuchin order founder), Cardinal Massaja,
Antoine & Arnauld d'Abbadie were active. Anglican Church
Missionary Society (ACMS), Church Missionary Society of
London (CMSL) & Wesleyan Methodist Society led Protestant
missionaries under such leaders as Samuel Gobat, C.W. Isenberg
and J. L. Krapf.
 Systematic approach of trained Protestants: They
• translated spiritual books into vernaculars
• adopted old names for Supreme Beinglike Waqayyo, Tosa
• established Village schools as centers of preaching the faith
• provided medical facilities.
• All these attracted a large number of followers.
 Cont...
• 2.4.4 Islam:- following Prophet Mohammed’s teaching of
Islam in Mecca in 610 AD, opposition started against him by
the Quraysh rulers.
• Then, followers of Mohammed including his daughter
Rukiya & her husband Uthman as well as the Prophet's
future wives Umm Habiba & Umm Salma came to Aksum
led by Jafar Abu Talib as refugees.
• In his advice to his followers, the Prophet said of Ethiopia,
"…a king under whom none are persecuted. It is a land of
righteousness, where God will give relief from what you are
suffering.“ The then Aksumite king, Armah Ella Seham
(Ashama b. Abjar or Ahmed al-Nejash), gave them asylum
from 615-28.
 Conti...
Consequently, Islam spread to the Horn of Africa
through peaceful ways /not by Jihad/by the agency
of Muslim clerics & merchants.
• Islam then established in Dahlak (Alalay) Islands
on the Red Sea by the beginning of eighth century.
• The Dahlak route played a minor role in
introduction Islam into interior of Northern
Ethiopia b/se Christianity was well established in
the area.
 Conti...
 The port of Zeila on Gulf of Aden was an important
gateway for the introduction of Islam mainly into
the present day Shewa, Wollo & Hararghe.
 it should be noted that Sheikh Hussein of Bale,
played very important role in the expansion of Islam
into Bale, Arsi & other parts of SEn Ethiopia & the
Horn.
 Islam was introduced into Somali territories in 8th
century A. D. through Benadir coasts of
Moqadishu, Brava and Merca.
 UNIT 3-Politics, Economy & Society in
Ethiopia & the Horn to the of 13th c
• Factors for the emergence of States:-
 The beginning of sedentary agriculture-through the
expansion of agriculture class differentiation
emerged w/c led to the formation of states.
 The growth of trade also facilitated the dev’t of
states
 Irrigation, war leadership...
State refers to an autonomous political unity, has
large ppn, defined territory, sovereignty & gov’t
power. State was the outcome of cultural process.
 Conti...
• The early states wlc were ruled by priests-called theocratic states.
Later religious elites were gradually replaced by chiefs who began
to collect tribute
• State was the outcome of regular cultural process.
3.2. Ancient states:- North & Northeast
A. Punt-the earliest state in Ethiopia & the Horn.
• Sources about Punt came from Egyptian sources. Pharaoh Sahure
(r. 2743-2731) sent expedition to collect myrrh, ebony &
electrum (gold & silver alloy)
• During Pharaoh Asosi, treasurer of God Bawardede took dancing
dwarf “dink" to Egypt from Punt.
• The famous Egyptian Queen Hatshepsut(1490-1468) sent a
expedition with five ships under Black Nubian Captain Nehasi via
Wadi-Tumilat.
 Conti...
• -documented at her tomb in Dier El Bahri. The expedition warmly
welcomed by the Puntites king Perehu, his wife Ati, sons, daughters
and followers.
• The expedition was able to return collecting frank incense, cinnamon,
sweet smelling woods (sandal), spices, ivory, rhinoceroshorn, leopard
& leopard skins, ostrich feathers & egg, live monkeys., giraffes, people
etc. Hatshepsut presented some parts of the items to her god, Amun.
 The exact location of Punt was not known to the scholars.
 Da’amat & Other Cultural centres in Nn Ethiopia & Eritrea
 Da’amat:- to the south of Aksum.
 Sources about Da’amat obtained from local archaeological findings-
inscription-dated to the 5th c B.C. evidences shows that the king of
Da’amat used
 Conti...
Politico-religious title called Mukarib. Many gods of S.Arabian
• Various gods and goddesses like Almouqah (principal god),
Astarr (Venus god), Na’uran (light god), Shamsi (sun god),
and Sin (moon god) were worshipped in the domain of the
Da’amat state
 Cultural centers in Nn Ethiopia
 Yeha:- 30kms to the Ne of Aksum- oldest site probably
emerged around 1000BC. Became prosperous from 750-
500BC. Hawulti:- to southeast of Aksum
• Addi-Seglemeni:- at 10kms southwest of Aksum from where
a stone slab is found & the oldest Ethiopian monumental
inscription is discovered
 Conti...
 The Aksumite State:- its nucleus was 1st formed in the
present town of Aksum around 200-100 BC & later expanded
in all directions.
 According to the Periplus of Erithrean Sea:-
 Adulis on the west coast of Red Sea was the major port of
Aksum.
 The document mentioned ports of Aden (Eudaemon ) Gulf
like Zeila, Berbera & the Indian Ocean Benadir Coasts like
Moqadishu, Brava & Merca.
 The major export items of Aksumite were:- ivory, myrrh,
emerald, frankincense & spices such as (ginger, cassia &
cinnamon), gold, rhinoceros horns, hippopotamus hides,
tortoise shells & ape.
 Conti...
• Import items were:- garments & textiles from Egypt, India,
Roman Empire & Persia, jewelry from Egypt & other
places; metallic sheets, tools or utensils of various kinds,
oil & wine from Roman Empire & Syria were imported.
 Zoscales (c. 76-89) was the king of Aksum who used to
communicate in Greek languages.
 Aksum had foreign relations with Ceylon (Sir lanka) &
Laodicia (Asia Minor)
 The book Christian Topography composed by Cosmas
Indicopleustes-describes commercial activities of the Red
Sea areas, the internal long distance b/n Aksum & Sasu
(probably in Benishangul)
 Conti...
• A big caravan made up of close to 500 merchants some of them
special agents of the kings of Aksum would take to Sasu cattle,
lumps & iron to exchange for gold- through the practice of silent
trade.
• From the 3rd c to 7th c, Aksumite kings like Aphilas, Endybis,
Wazeba, Ezana, Ousanas II, etc minted coins in gold, silver &
bronze.
• Later Aksum became one of the 4 great powers of the world i.e
Roman Empire, Persia, China & Aksum at the time.
 Kaleb (r. 500-35) expanded overseas territories of Aksum beyond
Mimyar & Saba. He conquered Arabia & ruled until 570 AD
 Kaleb was succeeded by his son Gabra Maskal & it was during his
reign that Yared developed the
 Conti...
EOC liturgical songs & hymns
 The decline of Aksumite State
 Due to internal & external factors:-
 Internally, environmental degradation, decline in
agricultural productivity & possibly plague infestation
began to weaken it.
 Rebellions of the Beja, the Agaw & Queen Bani al
Hamwiyah (Yodit)
 Externally, the destruction of Adulis, port of Aksum
around 702 AD & the Arab Muslims controlled the
whole network of Aksumite international trade
 Conti...
 Finally Aksum declined economically, diplomatically,
commercially & the politically & militarily
 However, the legacies of Aksum civilizations positively
influenced its successors (Zagwe, Gondarine,
‘Solomonic Dynasty’...etc.)
D. Zagwe Dynasty:- the centre of Aksum shifted to Kubar
in Agaw area. The Agaw elites participated as soldiers &
functionaries for at least 4 centuries.
 The Agaw prince Merra Taklahymanot married Masobe
Worq, the daughter of Dil Na’od. Then, Merra TH took
control of power from the last Aksumite king, Dil Naod.
 Conti...
 The successors of Merra were Yimirahana Kirstos,
Harbe, Lalibela (1160-1211), Ne’akuto La’ab, Yetbarek
(probably ruled c.1150-1270) etc.
 The Zagwe made its centre in Bugna District within
Wag & Lasta, more exactly at Adafa near Roha
(Lalibela).
 The Zagwe period was a golden age in Eth’s paintings
& the translation of some religious books from Arabic
into Ge’ez
 Zagwe rulers are remembered for the construction of
cave, semi-hewn & monolithic
 Conti...
churches
1. Cave- similar with natural cave eg. Bete-Meskel
2. Semi-hewn-not totally separated from the
surrounding rocks. Eg. Beta Denagil, Bete
Debresina.Mikael, Beta Golgota, Beta Marqoriwos,
Bete Gabriel-Rufa’el & Bete Aba Libanos
3. Monolithic: are completely separated from
(carved out) from surrounding rocks eg Bete
Amanuel, Beta Giyorgis, Bete Mariam & Bete
Medhanialem
 Conti...
 Bete Medhanelem is the largest of all
 Bete Giyorgis-most finely built in the shape of the cross.
 Lalibela wanted to establish the 2nd Jerusalem to avoid
the difficulties of journey to Holy land
 Reasons for the fall of Zagwe dynasty:
 Internal problems & oppositions that came from the
groups claiming descent from the ancient rulers of
Aksum
 The Zagwe kings were considered as “illegitimate
rulers” based on the Legend of Queen Sheba (w/c
based on a book Kibre-Negest (Glory of Kings)
 Conti...
 Yekuno-Amlak-(r.1270-1285) claimed his descent
from the last king Dilna’od & defeated, killed
Yetbarek in battle & finally ‘restored’ the so-called
‘Solomonic Dynasty’.
3.2.2. East, Central, Southern, & Wn States
3.2.2.1 Bizamo, Damot, Enarya & Gafat
a. Bizamo (8th c):- located on the Sn bend of Abay
River just opposite to the district of Gojjam &
around the present Wambara area.
• It had early contacts with Damot
 Conti...
• Damot: the earliest & strong kdm-included most of
the lands to south of Abay & north of L. Turkana &
also W. of Awash & east of Didessa.
• Motalami-famous king of Damot(in 13thc)
c. Enarya:- in the Gibe region in s.west of Ethiopia.
Ruled by Hinnare Bushasho (Hinnario Busaso-
cosidered as sacred or divine one) dynasty. In 9 th c
Orthodox Christian priests carried arks(tabots) to
Enarya under king Digna of Aksum.
d. Gafat: lies south of Abay River adjoining Damot on
the s.wn periphery of Ch.kdm. It was inhabited
 Conti...
by Semitic speaking people related to Adere & the Gurage.
A Gafat mountains provided a rich source of gold. It was
paying tribute to the Ch.kdm mainly in cattle. The
province was ruled by the title of Awalamo
3.2.2.2 Muslim Sultanates:-
A. Shewa:- founded by Makhzumi Khalid ibn al-walid
( from Mecca) in 896 AD (283 AH)
• It was the earliest Muslim sultanate in Ethiopi
B. Fatagar :- was founded around Minjar, Shenkora & Ada’a
in 11th c. Had cultivated Wheat & barley, fruits & also
numerous herds of cattle, sheep,
 Conti...
goats.
C. Dawuro:- south of Fatagar- b/n Awash & Wabi
Shabale extending to Charchar In NE & Gindhir in SE.
information about Dawuro came from an Egyptian
courtier Ibn Fad Allah el-umari. Had a currency
called hakuna
D. Bali:-extensive kdm separating basins of Shebelle &
R.valley lakes. It was separated from Dawuro by the
Wabi-Shebelle. Bali was one of the largest Ethiopia’s
Muslim provinces. Its army composed of cavalry &
infantry
 Conti...
E. Ifat:- located in the adjacent to Shewan Sultanate-was
established by Umar Walasma- from Arabian clan
(Hashamite) (b/n1271 & 1285). He annexed the
Sultanate of Shewa. The sultanate was fertile & well
watered where chat was 1st described as being
consumed as a stimulant.
3.3 External Contacts:- Eth. & the Horn early contacts
with Egypt since 3000 BC. Commercially, with South
Arabian kgds before 1000BC.
 The introduction of Christianity to Aksum established
a new pattern of relation b/n the region & Egypt.
 Conti...
• Aksum had also established relation with Byzantine
empire.
• The decline of Aksum due to the rapid expansion of
the Muslim Arabs in the 7th c deteriorated the r/ship
b/n Aksum & Byzantine empire .
• After the Mamluk came to power in Egypt, the
religious minorities were persecuted. This affected the
relation b/n Egypt & Ethiopia.
• Later, the yarn about the Prester John began to
circulate in Europe. The Europeans wanted to get the
support of this strong Christian king against
 Conti...
• Muslim power in the Holy land but the geographical
location of Prester John was not known to the Europeans.
• They considered Ethiopian Ch. Kdm as the land of this
strong king.
3.4 Economic Formation
A. Agriculture & Land Tenure system
 Land has been always the most precious possessions of
human society throughout history.
 The rules by w/c the members of society hold, share &
use land constitute called land tenure.
 Conti...
 Ancient land holding system in Ethiopia & the Horn-
is the communal land tenure( group right)
 Rist rights:- used by peasants in the north. It is a
kind of communal birthright to land through
customary law. All subjects of the state had the rist
rights. Bale-rist=Rist owners. They paid tribute to
the state & all the land belonged to the state
theoretically.
 Gult-rights- given to the officials who were on
behalf of the cetl. gov’t to levy tribute on rist
owners’ produce.
 Conti...
Riste-Gult-Gult right that became hereditary.
3.5 Socio- Cultutural Achievement
A. Architecture:- architectural technologies of Aksum 1st
reflected in stele in the 3rd c AD. About 58 steles around
Aksum.
• According to oral tradition, the steles were engraved at
Gobodara from w/c they were transported & planted in
Aksum.
• The longest stele-33meters (the 1st in the world). It
represented a-14 storied building-broken probably
during its erection or by war. It bears pre-Christian
symbols (half moon, crescent)
 Conti...
The 2nd -24ms –successfully erected
The 3rd -21ms
• The Zagwe churches are regarded as some of
the finest architecture of artistic
achievements of the Christian world and that
is why they were registered by UNESCO as
part of world cultural heritage in 1978, two
years before that of the Aksumite stele.
 Conti...
• Writing System
• The Sabean language had an alphabet with paleographical
writing type from left to right & right to left alternatively
• Sabean inscriptions in Eritrea & Ethiopia date to the 9th c BC.
• Sabean inscriptions had no vowels as most of the words are
written in consonants.
• Eg, Da’amat was inscribed as D’mt
• After 7th & 6th centuries BC, variants of script evolved in to
Geʽez script (an alpha syllabary
• By the 1st c AD, "Geʽez alphabet" arose, an abjad (26 consonant
letters only) written left-to-right with letters identical to the
first-order forms of modern vocalized alphabet.
 Conti...
• Though the first completely vocalized texts known are
inscriptions by Ezana (who left trilingual inscriptions in
Greek, Sabean & Ge'ez) c. 330 AD, vocalized letters
predate him by some years, as vocalized letter exists in
Wazeba’s coin some 30 or 5o yrs before.
• The process was developed under the influence of
Christian scripture by adding vocalic diacritics for vowels,
u, i, a, e, ə, o, to the consonantal letters
• Ethiopia's ancient indigenous writing system has a great
contribution to the dev’t of literature, art the writing of
history.
 Conti...
Calendar
 In most cases, the length of the month was
based on the movement of the moon or the
apparent movement of the sun.
 Oromo calendar- based on astronomical
observations of moon in conjunction with 7 or 8
group of stars called Urjii Dhahaa (guiding stars)
and Bakkalcha (morning star). There are 29.5
dates in a month and 354 days in 12 months of a
year.
 Conti...
• The Sidama calendar follows movements of
stars with 13 months a year, 12 of w/ch are
divided equally into 28 days while the 13th
month has 29 days. The Sidama week has only 4
days (Dikko, Dela, Qawado and Qawalanka)
• Fiche Chambalala- New Year in Sidama
• Ethiopic solar calendar has 12 months of 30
days plus 5 or 6 (is added every 4 years)
Epagomenal days, which comprise a thirteenth
month.
 UNIT FOUR
• POLITICS, ECONOMY & SOCIETY FROM THE LATE 13th
TO THE BEGINNING OF THE 16th CENTURIES
• 4.1. The “Restoration” of the “Solomonic’’ Dynasty
• The rulers of the “Solomonic” Dynasty claimed that
they were descendants of the last king of Aksum &
hence, they were legitimate to take over state power
from the “illegitimate”rulers of the Zagwe dynasty.
• However, the claim from Solomon of Israel was
legendary-elaborated in the Kibre Negest (“Glory of
Kings”) that associated Ethiopia with the Judeo-
Christian tradition
 Conti...
• Accordingly, Ethiopian ruling class claimed that they
descended from the line of Menilek I, son of the Queen of
Sheba & King Solomon of Israel.
• Thus Ethiopian monarchs from Yikuno- Amlak to Emperor
Haile-Silassie I claimed descent from Menilek I.
• 4.2. Power Struggle, Consolidation, Territorial Expansion &
Religious Processes
• 4.2.1. Succession Problem & the Establishment of a ‘Royal
Prison’ of Amba Gishen
• Since 1285, a political instability caused by constant power
struggles among the sons & grand sons of Yekuno-Amlak for
succession occurred.
 Conti...
• The power struggle intensified during the reigns of Yegba-
Tsion’s(r.1285-1294) five sons who reigned from 1294 to 1299.
• Power struggles’ problem was resolved around 1300, during
the reign of Widim-Ra‟ad (r. 1299-1314); when Amba-Gishen
(in Sn Wollo) was established as “royal prison” to avoid
further power struggle among contending princes
• all male members of the royal family were confined to the
prison until one among them was installed in power
• Loyal soldiers to the reigning monarch guarded the royal
prison
• Sending the contenders to Amba-Gishen was continued until
the prison was destroyed by Imam Ahmad Ibrahim in1540.
 Conti...
• 4.2.2. Consolidation & Territorial Expansion of the Christian
Kingdom
• From 1270 until 1636(Gondar), the medieval monarchs had no
permanent capital.
• Initially, the center of the “restored” dynasty was in medieval
Amhara around Lake Haiq then later shifted to districts of
Menz, Tegulet, Bulga, and finally to the Yerer, Entoto,
Menagesha, Wachacha, Furi and Zequalla mountains.
• Yikuno-Amlak subdued Ifat-the Muslim center adjacent to
Shewa
• Until the coming of Amde-Tsion to power (r.1314-44), the
center & the territorial limit of the Ch. Kdm was mainly in
present day Tigray, Lasta, medieval Amhara and Shewa.
 Conti...
 The Christian Kingdom controlled extensive
territories during the reign of E. Amde-Tsion. His
main motives of expansion were economic &
political i.e. to control the trade routes & seize
territories.
 The period also witnessed the expansion of trade.
 Amde-Tsion expanded his territory into Agaw (Awi)
of Gojjam around 1323/4; Bizamo & Damot in
1316/7; Bete-Israel (located b/n Dambiya & Tekeze
River) around 1332; & the Red Sea Coast.
 Conti..
• To consolidate his Christian state over the provinces of the
north extending to the coastal areas of Massawa, Amde-Tsion
gave Enderta (northeastern Tigray) to his wife Bilen-Saba.
• Amde-Tsion's army faced stiff resistance from among Ifat &
Shewa.
• Later Bahr-Sagad, the son of Amde-Tsion, became the
governor of Tigray. In 1325, Amde-Tsion campaigned to today’s
Eritrean region & he Controlled the whole region & he
appointed a governor with a title of Ma'ekale-Bahir, which
later on changed to Bahire-Negash.
• In the southeast, Muslim sultanates, in the south, Gurage
speaking areas & a few of the Omotic kingdoms like Wolayta &
Gamo were controlled by Ch.Kdm
 Conti...
• In the southeast, Muslim sultanates paid tributes to
the Chr. Kdm. In the south, Gurage speaking areas &
a few of the Omotic kingdoms like Wolayta & Gamo
were brought under the control of Christian state.
• Amde-Tsion was in full control of all the trade routes
& sources of trade of the Ethiopian region in the
early 1330s.
• The consolidation of the territorial expansion of the
Chr. Kdm continued during the successors of Amde-
Tsion.
 Conti...
• 4.2.3. Evangelization, Religious Movements, & Religious
Reforms of Zara-Yaqob
I. Evangelization
• In Shewa there were early Christians who maintained
contacts with their distant relatives in Nn part of Ethiopia.
• Those early Christians played an important role in the spread
of Chr’nity in several areas.
 Iyesus-Mo'a opened new opportunities of learning for
Christians who lived in the central part of Ethiopia &
evangelized the newly incorporated areas
 Amde Tsiyon’s territorial expansion facilitated the spread of
Christianity.
 Conti...
• Abune Tekle-Haymanot in 13th played a key role
in reviving Christianity in Shewa & facilitated the
evangelization of areas in Sn Ethiopia including
medieval Damot. AT.Haymanot baptized &
converted Motalami to Christianity.
• The clergy, under the bishop, Yaqob, spread
Chr’nity to different areas of Shewa Kil'at,
Tsilalish, Merhabite, Wereb, Moret & Wegda, &
Fatagar, Damot, Waj &Enarya.
 Conti...
• II. Religious Movements
A. The Ewostatewos Movement
• Monasticism w/c started in the 13th c in EOC & the
religious mov’nts in Ethiopia led to the Ewostatewos
movement - named after the founder,Ewostatewos who
established his own monastic community in Sara'e (in
present day Eritrea) in 1337 among his teachings -the
strict observance of Sabbath.
• After he faced opposition from an organized group of
clergy in Sera'e, he fled to Egypt.
• He faced the same opposition in Cairo by Ethiopian
pilgrims.
 Conti...
• His followers in Ethiopia who returned from Armenia
dispersed to different monasteries in Nn Ethiopia &
strengthened the mov’t.
B. Deqiqe Estifanos/ the Estifanosites
• The Estifanosites were a mov’nt within Ethiopian
monasticism, called so after their Founder & spiritual leader
Abba Estifanos who was born in Agame at the end of the 14th
C.
• The mov’t began in the 15thc & continued until the 16thc.-it
reconciled with the main body of the EOC in the 16thc
• Abba Estifanos established a rigid monastic org’n, w/c
emphasized poverty, absolute self-subsistence, equality &
autonomy from secular authorities
 Conti...
• Later the mov’t gained followers in various
monastic communities.
• Estifanos was initially able to convince the
emperor (pr’ly Atse Takla Maryam, r. 1430-33)
that he posed no threat to royal power or the
unity of the Church.
• However, Zara-Yacob took very harsh
measures against the Estifanosites due to their
opposition of the veneration of St. Mary
 Conti...
• III. The Religious Reforms of Emperor Zara-Yaqob
• E. Zara-Yaqob (r.1434-68) took several measures to
consolidate the EOC
 1st he settled the conflict among the Ethiopian clergy to
create state-church
 He made peace with the House of Ewostatewos by reviving
Sabbath in the Ethiopian church & the Ewostatian agreed to
receive Holy orders from the Ethiopian prelates (Bishops).
 he urged the clergy to preach Christianity in remote areas
 he ordered fasting on Wednesdays and Fridays & get Father
Confessors
 Conti...
 He established a library in every church w/c revived religious
literature
 He himself wrote some books like Metsafe Birhan, Metsafe-
Me’lad, Metsafe-Sillasie, Metsafe-te'aqebo Mister,etc.
 during his reign, some parts of Te’amre-
Maryam was translated from Arabic to Geez.
• 4.3. Political & Socio-Economic Dynamics in Muslim
Sultanates
• A number of strong sultanates had emerged since the 14thc.
• Trade was one of the major factors that resulted in the rise
& dev’nt of sultanate in the 14thc
 Conti...
• Later the control of Trade routs became a major source
of conflict b/n the Ch. Kdm & Muslim sultanates.
• 4.3.1. The Rise of Adal-
• it was a strong Muslim Sultanate that resisted the Ch.
H. Kdm
• the Walasma family from Ifat moved further to the S.En
lowlands & established new & vigorous
(dynamic/energetic)Muslim Sultanate of Adal in the
highland districts around Harar in 1367. The
• Its 1St center was at a place called Dakar on the S.est of
Harar
 Cont...
 The center of Adal in 1520 changed to the city of Harar &
after the defeat of Imam Ahmed by the Ch. H. Kdm, the
Oromo ppn mov’t forced Adal to change its capital to
Awsa in 1576/7,in present Afar
 4.3.2. Trade & the Expansion of Islam
• Islam spread into the central & S.wn parts of the
Ethiopian region through Muslim merchants &
preachers.
• Trade served as channel for the expansion of Islam in the
Muslim Sultanates
• The most known Muslim Sultanates during this period
were Ifat (1285-1415) & Adal (1415-1577).
 Conti...
• The main trade outlet shifted to Zeila & the old city-states
of Mogadishu, Brava, & Merca were used as ports for
their hinterland.
• In the northeast, Massawa served as an outlet.
• different towns & trade centers emerged along the route
from Zeila to the interior.
• These include Weez-Gebeya in Wn Shewa/ on the
Fatagar-Dawaro-Harar route, Suq-Wayzaro in old Damot,
Suq-Amaja & the known market center Gandabalo on the
Ifat-Awsa route.
• Gandabalo was largely inhabited by Muslim & Christian
merchants serving the kings & sultans as agents... etc
 Conti...
• Muslim states had significant control over trade
routes that passed through Zeila due to their
geographical proximity to their sultanates
• 4.4. Rivalry b/n the Chr. Kdm & the Muslim
Sultanates
• Zeila was the main outlet to the sea during the
medieval period.
• The ambition to control Zeila trade route led to rivalry
b/n the “Solomonic” rulers & the Sultanate of Ifat.
• Amde-Tsion defeated Haqaddin I and took him
prisoner and replaced him by his brother Sabradin
 Conti...
 Ifat was defeated and Sabradin was captured As a
result, Ifat, Fatagar and Dawaro were incorporated by
Amde-Tsiyon in 1332.
 In 1376, Haqadin II came to power and refused to pay
tribute and rebelled against Neway-Maryam (1371-80),
the son of Amde-Tsion. However, Haqadin II died
fighting in 1386.
 Sa’d ad-Din II (C. 1386-1402) gained initial success until
king Dawit I (r. 1380-1412) who defeated him in 1402/3
 Finally, King Yishaq (r.1413-30) killed Sa’d ad-Din II in
1415
 Conti...
 The Muslim sultanate lost Zeila to Christian kdm & declined
in power.
 Adal continued to challenge the Ch. state & were successful
in killing Tewodros (1412-13) and Yeshaq. This led to intense
struggle for predominance.
 In 1445, Zara Yaqob defeated Sultan Ahmed Badlay at the
battle of Yeguba.
 Mohammed Ahmed (r.1445-71) sent a message of
submission to Ba’ede Mariam (r. 1468-78) to remain vassal
of the Christian Kings.
 Later Ba’ede-Mariam campaigned against Adal.
 However, the army of Ba'ede-Mariam lost the battle in 1474.
 Conti...
 The successors of Ba'ede-Mariam became weak in
dealing with Muslim sultanate.
 Mohammad ibn Azhar ad-Din (1488-1518) attempted to
harmonize relations with the Chr. Kdm .
 After effective military campaigns, Emir Mahfuz later died
fighting against E. Lebne-Dengel's (r. 1508-40)forces.
 The, the son-in-law of Mahfuz, Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim
al-Ghazi took over the leadership.
 Apart from the hostile relations, there were wider socio-
economic and cultural interactions b/n the Ch. Kdm and
Muslim principalities
 Conti...
4.5. External Relations
4.5.1. Relations with Egypt
• From the late 13thc onwards, the Chr’n Kdm continued to
maintain mainly religious relations with Egypt.
 In 1272, Yekuno-Amlak sent an emissary to Egypt’s Sultan,
Baybars requesting an Abun from the Coptic Church
 Both Egypt & Ethiopia continued to act as protectors of
religious minorities in their respective domain.
 Egypt wanted to ensure secure flow of the Nile (the Abay
River) that originated from Ethiopia
 In the medieval period, contacts b/n the Europe & Ethiopia
were strongly influenced by the legend of “Prester John”.
 Conti...
 In the early 14thc, Mohammed ibn Qala’un persecuted the Copts
& destroyed their churches in Cairo.
 Amde-Tsion demanded the restoration of the churches & warned
that failure to do so would result in the diversion of the Nile
waters.
 Patriarch Marqos (1348- 63) sent a message to Sayfa-Arad
(r.1344-71), revealing his imprisonment by the then Egyptian
Sultan.
 Sayfa-Arad is said to have mobilized a huge army against Egypt
after w/c the Sultan released the patriarch & sent a delegation to
the King.
 Patriarch Matewos (1328-1408) delegated by the Sultan,
established harmonious relations b/n King Dawit & Egypt. The
Sultan is said to have sent a piece of the "True Cross“ & in return.
 Conti...
• In 1437/8, Zara-Yaqob wrote a friendly letter to Sultan Barsbay
requesting the protection of Christians in Egypt
 The earliest message to Ethiopia from a European monarch is
the letter of King Henry IV of England dated 1400 A.D. &
addressed to “Prester John”,the purported king of the Ch’n
Kdm.
 They even thought that it was possible to liberate Jerusalem
with the help of this King.
 During the reign of King Dawit, the leaders of Rome,
Constantinople, Syria, Armenia & Egypt sent letters to the king
in w/c they asked for support.
• In 1402, King Dawit sent his first delegation to Europe led by a
Florentine man called AntonioBartoli...etc refer to module
 UNIT FIVE

• POLITICS, ECONOMY & SOCIAL PROCESSES FROM THE

EARLY 16TH TO THE END OF THE 18TH
• Important Points of the Unit
• socio-economic & political dev’ts from the early 16th to the
late 18th centuries.
• W/c led to the making of modern Ethiopia through the
intermingling of peoples, economic interdependence &
political activities
 Major dev’nts of the period
 expansion of trade,
 conflicts b/n the Chr’nKdm & Muslim Sultanates & foreign
interventions;
 Conti...
 the ppn mov’nts of the Afar, the Somali, the
Argoba & the Oromo;
 religious expansions, interaction of peoples &
the resultant integration across ethnic &
religious diversities
 the unit also discusses societies & states in
different parts of Ethiopia & the Horn,
 the Gondarine Period (1636-1769),
 Zemene Mesafint (1769-1855) including the Yejju
rule (1786-1853).
 Conti...
• 5.1. Conflict b/n the Christian Kingdom & the
Sultanate of Adal & After
• It discussed in unit four that the revival of long-
distance trade caused competition & struggle for
control over the trade routes b/n the Chr’n Kdm &
the Muslim principalities.
• Religiopn rovided ideological justification for the wars
b/n the above states.
• But the interest to control trade routes lay at the
heart of the conflict b/n the Chr’n Kdm & the Muslim
Sultanates that continued for over two centuries
 Conti...
• among the Muslim Sultanates, internal strife,
corruption & anarchy was intensified & a new
leadership was urgently called for.
• Imam Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi:-alias “the left-
handed,(Ahmed Gragn)” are obscure.
• He was born at Hubet in b/n Dire Dawa & Jigjiga &
raised by his devout Muslim kin in one of the oases
on the route to Zeila. He was a devout Muslim.
• He soldiered for Garad Abun of Adal who called
for Islamic Puritanism during his short period reign.
 Cont..
• After Imam Ahmad’s rise to power he did not fight
the battles just the for control ofnthe long-distance
trade route going through Zeila but to check
environmental pressure among the Afar and Somali
pastoralists pushing to approach Harar & the
Christian Kingdom.
• For centuries, lowland inhabiting Muslim
pastoralists had wanted to expand to high plateaus
for better & enough pasturelands & attempted to
do so but only to be held back by the Christian army
 Conti...
• Imam Ahmed stated to mobilizing the Muslim communities for
war against Ch.H.kdm taking the following reasons as
preconditions
• Solving the environmental pressure among the Afar & Somali
pastoralists
• he mobilized the pastoral communities of the Afar, the Somali,
Harari & Argobas a common cause. He convinced them,
 not to fight amongst themselves but to unite & expand to the
Chr’n Kdm & resolve their pressing material needs
 Guarding Islamic doctrines & practices from the infiltration of
any alien religious doctrine. Then,he was able to gain
acceptance as Imam
 Conti...
• By the time Imam Ahmed was strong enough for military
confrontation in 1520, he refused to pay tribute & he started a
campaign against the Chr’n Kdm in 1527
• The Imam’s army fought fiercely & controlled Bali, Dawaro,
Fatagar, Sidama, Hadiya & Kambata &putting the Christian
Kingdom at risk.
• In 1528, Lebne-Dengel mobilized a vast force from his domain.
However, in addition to logistical problems, the leadership of the
army of Chr’n kdm failed to adopt a common strategy to defeat
Adal’s force
• On the other hand ,the Imam’s army had also an excellent
leadership characterized by better mobility & flexible tactics with
a unified command.
 Conti...
• the larger & well-equipped Chr’n army was defeated at
the battle of Shimbra Kure in 1529, near present day
Mojo.
• This was followed a large-scale control of the territories
of the Chr’n Kdm including Shewa, Amhara, Lasta &
moved as far north as Mereb Melash.
• By 1535, Imam Ahmed’s empire stretched from Zeila to
Massawa on the coast including the Ethiopian interior.
• Imam Ahmed established a civil administrative
bureaucracy constituted from his own men & newly
recruited personnel from the Christian territories.
 Conti...
 The wife of the Imam Bati Del Wanbara,the daughter
Mahfuz(army commander of Adal), who delivered her two
sons during the campaigns of 1531 and 1533 in Ifat & present
day Tigrayrespectively she much contributed in strengthening
Imam Ahmed
• Tradition claimed that Del Wanbara had encouraged her
husband to avenge the death of her father. She accompanied
her husband throughout his expeditions & she marched even in
a state of pregnancy during w/c she was unable to use mules
 Lebne-Dengel retreated & finally died in 1540 being fugitive.
• His son & successor Gelawdewos (r. 1540-1559), ascended to
the throne.
• He continued to face the wars after Imam Ahmed had received
fresh Turkish musketeers
 Cont...
 About 400 Portuguese soldiers, armed with matchlocks
arrived in the Christian court in 1541 led by Christopher
da Gama, the youngest son of Vasco da Gama
 However, in Aug. 1542 the Christian army was defeated
in Ofla, Sn Tigray. In the battle, about 200 Portuguese &
their leader Christopher da Gama were killed.
 Lebne-Dengel's wife Seble wongel is said to have
participated in the war against Imam Ahmed in 1542
 Advised by Seble Wongel, Em. Gelawdewos on Feb. 25,
1543 while Imam Ahmed was encamped near Lake Tana,
attacked & killed the Imam at the battle of Woyna-Dega.
 Cont...
 Then the king restored possession of almost all the northern &
central plateau & other pre-1520s territories & tributary
regions.
 The king attempted to reconsolidate the state through
campaigns to different areas & camping Chewa (regiment) in
border areas. By the early 1550s, Gelawdewos had established
a strong Ch. Kdm. However, the control over the Muslim
dominated areas was not an easy task.
 In the period, the growing challenge to the Christian
state came from the retreating soldiers of the Sultanate
of Adal, the Ottoman Turks, Jesuit interlude, and
Oromo advance into the center.
 Conti...
 Finally, in 1559 the forces Nur Ibn al-Waazir
Mujahid of Emir Nur confronted Gelawdewos
and killed him in Awash Valley.
 E. Minas (r.1559-1563) defeated the Turks'
force & reclaimed territories in the coast
including Dabarwa. Similarly, Sartsa-Dengle
(r.1563-1598) had to defend the Turks &
defeated Turkish forces
 Cont...
 Consequences of the Muslim-Christian conflict:-
 the huge human & material cost
 Both powers were weakened (exhausted)
 The weaknesses of both powers paved the way the for the
Oromo population movement
 Positively-cultural interaction among the peoples of Ethiopia as
well as linguistic, religious interactions & intermarriages among
peoples of the various cultural groups followed the wars
 The war took international dimension when Ottoman Turks &
the Portuguese intervened for supremacy over the Red Sea &
the Indian Ocean for their own economic interests.
 Cont...
 Portugal looked up to the Ch, kdm as an ally & started
the old “semi-spiritual quest” for Prester John.
 Having noticed the mov’t of diplomatic missions b/n
the Ch. Kdm & Portugal, the Turks gave moral &
military support to Imam Ahmed
5.2. Foreign Intervention and Religious Controversies
 the church was weakened by the wars against the
sultanate of Adal
 , its service as an ideological arm of the state was
hampered
 Cont...
 the Oromo expanded deep into the Christian Kingdom
 As a result, Ch.Kdm may have regarded an alliance with Roman
Catholicism to strengthen itself & to restore its lost territories
 In 1557, several Jesuit missionaries along with their bishop,
Andreas de Oviedo, came to Ethiopia to expand Catholicism.
 The doctrine of Catholicism was contrary to Monophysite
theology of EOC. The Jesuits promoted Catholic doctrine of two
different & therefore separate, natures of Christ-divine and
human
 EOC taught that Christ, Tewahedo had a perfect human nature
inseparable from divinity (Monophysite)
 Cont...
 The missionaries who played key role in evangelizing the country include
Joao Bermudez, Andreas de Oviedo, Pedro Paez and Alfonso Mendez.
 The Jesuits were unsuccessful in converting Emperor Gelawdewos to
Catholicism b/se he defended the teachings of EOC in a document entitled
the Confession of Faith
 Minas & Sertse-Dengel, the successors of Gelawdewos were too busy
fighting against the Oromo & the Turkish forces to engage the Jesuits in
their courts.
 However, Emperor Za-Dengel (r. 1603-4) secretly converted to Catholicism
but he was soon overthrown by Yaqob (r.1604-7),
 The Jesuit intervention triggered doctrinal divisions and controversy
within the EOC
 disputant sects and reached its peak during the Zemene Mesafint.
 Cont...
 EOC tewahedo teaches Hulet Lidet (two births) of Christ
(eternity as Divine Being, the eternal birth & born again
from St. Mary into the world as a perfect man)
 Tewahedo (United) dominant in Tigray & Lasta
 Qibat (Unction) developed from Hulet Lidet doctrine-
claimed Holy Ghost anointed Jesus after He born to the
world-dominant in Gojjam
• Sost Lidet/ 3 Births (Ya Tsega Lij/Son through Grace) Christ
1st born in eternity as divine being, born again in the womb
of St. Mary & anointed by Holy Ghost- dominant in Gonder
and Shawa
 5.3. Population Movements
 People moved from place to place due to pull & push factors-natural and
social
 In Ethiopia and the Horn socio-political conditions involving military
conflicts, drought & demographic factors led to ppn mov’t w/c resulted in
intermarriage of peoples, change of abode, original culture & evolution of
new identities & also
 ethnic and linguistic interactions & intermingling of peoples.
 Specifically, people move out from their habitats in search of resources &
better living environment in general.
5.3.1. Population Movements of the Argoba, Afar, and Somali
• The Christian-Muslim conflict was partly responsible for the ppn mov’t of
the Argoba, Afar and Somali, pressure on the environment was a major factor
for the population movement.
 Cont...
 The Argoba were major agents of Islamic expansion, trade and
Muslim state formation in the Horn. Examples, , the sultanate of
Shewa & Ifat were established by theMakhzumite and Walasma
Dynasties respectively
 The sultanate of Ifat, in which the Argoba were dominant, became
the center of Muslim resistance
 The area inhabited by the Argoba was also a target of the
expanding Ch Kdm and was the major center of conflict.
• This was because the major caravan trade routes passed through
Argoba territory. Thus, the Christian-Muslim rivalry & the conflicts
thereof led to the destruction of sultanates and dispersion of the
people.
 Conti...
 The Afar:-they moved towards the east until they reached the middle
Awash due to drought & later the pressure from the conflict of two
powers-to control the trade routes affected the people of Afar
 Trade routes linking the ports in the Horn passed through the
 Afar's territory hence, centre of competition between the Christian
 Kdm & the Muslim sultanates to control the trade routes
 The Somali:-prior to the wars of Ahmed Gragn, there was strong
demographic pressure from the Somali.
 The ppn mov’t of the Somali was a strong force behind the military
strength of the Imam.
 However, the ppn mov’t of the Somali did not last for long as they
returned to their home base following the defeat of Imam Ahmed in 1543.
 Cont...
5.3.2. Gadaa System & Oromo Ppn Mov’t (1522-1618)
A. The Gadaa System:- Studies do not clearly indicate when & how the Gadaa system
emergedit.
 It is clear that for long the society organized their politics, economy, social, cultural,&
religious affairs through the Gadaa institution.
• The Gadaa system was an institution through w/c the Oromo socially organized
themselves, administered their affairs, defended their territories, maintained law &
order, & managed their economies.
 during the early 16thc, the system fully functioned because of which the Oromo were
well (Abba Bahrey) organized.
 Gadaa calendar and Gadaa centers suggest that the system evolved from the earlier
Cushitic age-set social organization. It is reasonable to think that the Oromo had
practiced the Gadaa system long before their mov’t in 16thc.
 Cont...
• Recent studies based on the Gadaa calendar & Gadaa centers
suggest that the system evolved from the earlier Cushitic age-set
social organization.
 8 yrs represented one Gadaa period
 5-gadaa periods or 40 years represented one generation & 9
generations represented an era.
 The earliest eras of Gadaa but still obscure were those of Bidiri
Dhoqqe.
 Before Gadaa Borana-Barentu around 1450 AD, the Oromo passed
through known eras of Taya, Tasaa, Munyo, Suftu, Maddile,
Abroji,Dhittacha and Warra-Daye (warden), each of w/c survived for
an era.
 However, the Borana-Barentu Gadaa was instituted after
interruption for nearly two generations
 Conti...
 It was revived in 1450 at Madda Walabu-centre of
Chaffe (assembly) and seat of the senior Qallu until
1900.
 Elements of democracy in the Gadaa system:
 periodic succession and power sharing to prevent a
one-man rule.
 representation of all lineages, clans & confederacies.
• It served as a mechanism of socialization,education,
maintenance of peace & order, and social cohesion
 In addition, Gadaa constituted rules of arara (conflict
resolution), guma (compensation) & rakoo(marriage).
 Conti...
 The following table shows a common version of age-grades
and roles associated to them.
 Table II: Age-grades and their roles
 Gadaa-grade Age Roles
 Dabale birth-8 years socialization
 Game 9-16- helping their family in different activities
 Folle 17-24 military training, agriculture etc
 Qondala 25-32 military service
 Raba-Dori 33-40 candidates for political power
 Luba 41-48 leaders of Gadaa government
 Yuba 49 to 80 senior advisors, educators & ritual leaders
 Cont...
• The gadaa/luba assumed power for eight years.
 Abba-Gadaa-(“father of the period”)-The head of the
government
 Abba Bokku (father of scepter),
 Abba Chaffe (head of the assembly),
 Abba-Dula (war leader), Abba Sera (father of law),
 Abba Alanga (judge),
 Abba Sa'a (father of treasury) and other councils
 The senior Qallu (Abba Muda) played indispensable roles
in power transfer and legitimizing the ruling gadaa class
 Cont...
 Women maintained their rights by the Sinqe
institution
 Women from childhood to old age i.e. guduru (pre-pubescent), passed
through qarre (adolescent, ready for marriage), kalale (wives of Luba and
Yuba) and cifire (wives of Gadamojji/above 80 years
 They involved in occasions like power transfer, conflict resolution, thanks-
giving and others.
The Five Gadaa Classes (generation sets)
Fathers Sons
 Melba Harmufa
 Mudena Robale
 Kilole Birmajii
 Bifole Mul’ata
 Michille Dulo
 B. The Oromo Population Movement
(1522-1618)
 Natural(demographic pressure -need for land for the
growing human and livestock ppn )& manmade factors
caused the Oromo ppn mov’t of the 16th & 17th centuries
 the conflict b/n the Ch. Kdm & Muslim Sultanates from
the 13th to 16th centuries might have pressurized mainly
pastoral Oromo groups to leave the lands they inhabited
for other areas.
 The Oromo were already organized under Borana &
Barentu confederacies when they began mov’t in1522
A.D
 From 1522 to 1618, the Oromo fought twelve Butta wars
 Conti...
 Melba (1522-1530) fought & defeated Christian regiment
Batra Amora led by Fasil and occupied Bali
 Gadaa Mudena (1530-8) reached the edge of Awash River.
 KiloleGadaa (1538-46) controlled Dawaro after defeating
Christian regiment Adal Mabraq
 Bifole (1546-54) advanced to Waj & Erer.
 Michille (1554-62) scored victory over Hamalmal's force at
Dago, & Jan Amora forces as well as Adal led by Emir Nur
Mujahiddin at Mount Hazalo.
 The Harmufa (1562-70) fought Minas (r.1559-63) at Qacina
& Wayyata; occupied Angot, Ganzyi, Sayint etc.
 Cont...
• the office of Abba Muda (the father of anointment) that seated at
Madda Walabu:
• formed alliances during times of difficulty. Besides,
• The Oromo obeyed similar ada (culture) & sera (law) through sending
their delegates to Madda-Walabu, the central chaffe until the pan-
Oromo assembly was forbidden in 1900 due to the political influence
of the Ethiopian state.
5.4. Interaction & Integration across Ethnic & Religious Diversities
• The trade contacts, conflicts to control trade routes, religious
expansion, territorial expansion & pp’n mov’nts were the major
factorsfor the people's interactions across regions
• One of the major consequences of the interactions in the medieval
period particularly in the pp’n mov’t of the 16th c was the integration
of peoples across ethnic & religious diversities in Ethiopia & the Horn.
 Cont...
• Territorial &religious expansion by the Chr’n kdm diffused
Christian tradition from north to the south.
• the wars of Imam Ahmed & the pp’n mov’nts of the Argoba, the
Afar & the Somali caused the expansion of Islam into the central
parts of Ethiopia.
 Consequences of the Oromo pp’n mov’nt
• put an end to the wars b/n the Christian & Muslim states & the
southward expansion of the Christian state.
• integrations among peoples across ethnic & religious background
• The Oromo integrated non-Oromo through two adoption
mechanisms: Guddifacha & Moggasa
• Guddifacha -the adoption of a child by a foster parent
• the child enjoyed equal rights and privileges with a biological child
 Conti...
• Moggasa-a systemof adopting non-Oromos commonly known
as Oromsu.
• It was the practice of incorporation of individuals or groups to
a clan through oath of allegiance with all the rights &
obligations that such membership entailed
• Moggasa was undertaken by the Abba Gadaa on behalf of the
clan.
• The adopted groups gained both protection & material
benefits
• A number of peoples in the neighborhood of the Oromo
adopted Gadaa system & Oromo language
• On the other hand, the Oromo adopted & adapted cultures &
traditions of the people with whom they came into contact
 Conti...
5.5. Peoples & States in Eastern, Central, Southern & W’n Regions
5.5.1. Peoples & States in the East
Somali:-inhabited vast territory in the Horn
• the Somali practiced pastoral economy
• Merca town located in the S’n Somali coast near Shabele River
was a capital that brought large number of Somalis together
during the 13th (noted by Ibn Said (1214-86), an Arab
geographer
• Somali contingents also played important role in the victories of
the Sultanate of Adal against the Christian kingdom.
• Historically, a council known as shir governed the society
 Cont...
• The decision making by the Shir process was highly
democratic
• clan level provided a governing structure that acted
as an enforcement of law and justice.
• The council governed wide-ranging affairs including
resource allocation, marriage, trade & crime.
• As a component of shir, the guurti (a council of
elders) was the highest political council mandated
with resolving conflict & crisis.
 Conti...
• two versions on the origin of the people of Argoba
1. as they descended from the followers of the P.
Mohammed who came to the Hn of Africa & settled at Ifat
2. They are one of the ancient peoples in the region that
accepted Islam very early from religious leaders who came
from Arabia.
The Emirate of Harar
Harar is one of the earliest Muslim centers in the region of
Ethiopia & the Horn
• In the 16th c, Harar became the capital of Walasma of Adal
replacing Dakar until 1577 w/c was shifted to Awsa due to
the pressure from the Oromo.
 Conti...
I. Ahmed ibn Ibrahim used Harar as a center from where he
launched his campaigns into the Chr’n kdm in 1527.
• Emir Nur Mujahid made Harara walled city
• Emir Ali ibn Da’ud (r. 1647-62) in cooperation with the Oromo
established a dynasty w/c was ruled for nearly 2 centuries &
strengthened by Amirs like Abdul Shakur (1783-94).
• Economically grew by controlling trade routes from the Gulf of
Aden ports of Zeila & Berbera
• Its authority was established over the surrounding Oromo & Somali
through trade, inter-marriage, & expansion of Islamic teachings.
• Egyptians, in 1875 controlled the emirate for nearly a decade
• Later ruled by Amir Abdulahi, as the last emir of the Sultanate for
two years & in 1887 Emperor Menilek II incorporated it to his
empire.
 Conti...
• 5.5.2. Peoples & States in Central & S. Central Parts
• The Kingdom of Shewa:- founded by a Menz ruler Negasi Kristos
(r.1696-1703) & eventually controlled districts like Asandabo,
Debdabo, Mafud & Yifat
• The 2nd king was Merid Azmatc Sebestie/Sebastyanos (r.1703-18).
• Abuye/ Abiyye (1718-45) made Haramba, his capital & tried to
subjugate the surrounding Oromo before he was killed by the
Karrayu Oromo.
• Amaha Iyesus/ Amayyes (r.1745-75) declared authority over
Bulga, Efrata, Menz Tegulet with his capital at Doqaqit w/c later
shifted to Ankober
• Asfa-Wosen (r.1775-1808) conquered Antsokia, Asbo, Gedem,
Gishe, Merhabete, Morat & Shewa Meda
 Cont...
• NegusSahle-Sellasie(r.1813-47),the grandfather of E. Menilek II
strengthened the dynasty in Shewa. He signed “treaty of friendship &
commerce” with the British in 1841
• Shewa’s economy -agriculture supplemented by trade & craft
• Near Ankobar, there was an important trade center in Aleyu Amba
administered by the Shewan court.
 Gurage: divided into the Wn & Nn Gurage
The 1st -are also known as Sebat Bet Gurage & include: Chaha, Muher, Ezha,
Gumer (Inamor, Enner, Endegegna & Gyeto).
2nd -Kistane , Aymallal or Soddo Gurage
• The staple crop in Gurage land is enset
• traditional system of governance-the Yajoka Qicha among the Sebat Bet
& the Gordanna Sera among the Kistane
• However, power was vested in clan or lineage groups
• Kambata
 Conti...
 Kambata
• By 1550-70, 4 communities of separate origin coalesced to
form the contemporary state of Kambata w/c means, “this is
the place” (where we live-as the Kambata believe in)
• The other 3 namely the Dubamo, Donga & Tembaro trace
their homeland from Sidama highlands.
• the ethno-genesis of Kambata also benefitted from Omotic &
Semitic peoples who moved into the region at different times
• Emperor Yeshak (r.1413-30) annexed Kambata proper &
controlled the area b/n Omo & Bilate Rivers, w/c he
incorporated into the Chr’n Ethiopian Empire.
• In 1532, the region was captured by Imam Ahmed’s army
 Cont...
• At the end the 16th c, the groups were recognized as & conscious of
the name Kambata related to one of the 7 dominant clans (Kambata
Lamala) in the region.
• The people were ensete farmers sharing similar culture & speaking
the same language called Kambatissa, w/c belongs to the Highland
East Cushitic family together with Qabena, Halaba, Hadiya, Sidama,
Gedeo & Burji groups.
• a traditional administrative institution called the Hambericho Council
ruled Kambata until the late 19th c w/c council had 7 members each
representing the 7 clans
Hadiya:
• The origin of Hadiya was mentioned in the Kebre-Negest (Glory of the
Kings) & it referred to the area west of the Islamic states in the
federation of Zeila. Its people-heterogeneous both linguistically &
culturally.
 Conti...
 North of Hadiya dominated by Semitic-speaking agricultural people
• the Southern part - largely inhabited by Cushitic-speaking pastoral
communities
• There was a considerable Muslim population
• the ruler of the Chr’n kdm, Amde-Tsion, subjugated Hadiya in 1332
after defeating its ruler, Amano who supported by a Muslim
“prophet” Bel’am aligned with leader of Ifat, Sabraddin
• In 1445, a Hadiya king called Mahiqo rebelled against E. Zara-Yaqob
(r.1434-68) & was consequently replaced by his uncle Bamo.
• Zara-Yaqob made a political marriage with Hadiya & he married
Princess Elleni, from Hadiya to stabilize the situation.
• However, Garad Aze refused to pay tribute to E.Sartsa-Dengel
(r.1563-98), but was suppressed in 1568/9.
 Conti...
• The relations b/n Hadiya & the Chr’n Kdm was
interrupted due to the wars b/n the latter & Adal & the
Oromo ppn movn’t until Hadiya's incorporation into the
Imperial state in the late 19th c
• The descendants of the old Hadiya can be traced from
four different linguistic clusters: the Oromo, the
Sidama, the Kabena & Alaba &
• the Hadiya proper with its sub-groups-the Mareko,
Lemu, Soro, Shashogo & Badowacho.
• The Hadiya language belongs to the Highland East
Cushitic family like that of Kanbata & Sidama
 5.5.3. Peoples & States in the South
• Sidama:-
• the Sidama have been living in the Sn parts of Ethiopia
occupying lowlands in the Great East Africa Rift Valley that
cut through Lakes Hawasa & Abaya in the eastern Sidama
highlands of Arbegona, Bansa & Arroressa districts
• Agriculture remained the basis ofSidama’s economy. Enset &
coffee are Sidama’s important food & cash crops respectively.
• an indigenous system of governance led by the Mote (king)
that exercised political administrative authority in
consultation with the council of elders called Songo
• Songo members submitted their decisions to the Mote for
approval
 Cont...
• The cultural & ritual leader in Sidama society was the
Woma who could not participate in war or cattle raiding as
he was considered a man of peace.
• Sidama society was divided into generation-sets called
Luwa-w/c had five grades each lasting for 8 yrs like Darara,
Fullassa, Hirbora, Wawassa & Mogissa. Candidates for
Luwa received a five-month military training & war songs
• Seera was the social constitution of the Sidama people
governing social life based on the Sidama moral code,
halale (the ultimate truth) to judge the right & wrong.
• people abide by the rules of halale to avoid curse or
ostracization by the society.
 Cont...
• Gedeo:-The dominant tradition relates the ancestors of the
Gedeo to Daraso-the older brother of Gujo (father of Guji
Oromo)
• Based on the above tradition, Seven major Gedeo clan
descended from the seven sons of Daraso.
• The clans were grouped in two houses:-
1. the shole batte (senior house)-the first four clans belonged
including more than 25 sub-clans
2. the second called sase batte (junior house)-the last three
belonged having 10 sub-clans
• The Gedeo had a culture called baalle, a traditional governance
system that worked with age classes & ranking which had seven
grades with a 10-year period each creating a 70-year cycle
 Conti...
• Sasserogo was a federation of 3 territories; Sobbho, Ributa &
Rikuta sharing one Abba Gadaa who leaves office every 8 yrs to
be replaced by a new holder with the next age set at baalle
ceremony.
• At the ceremony all positions ranging from the top, Abba Gada
down to Hayitcha were assumed
• Like the neighboring Sidama, their economy was based on the
cultivation of enset.
• Konso:- The term Konso is invariably used to refer one of the
ancient peoples in Ethiopia & the Horn who spoke affa Konso
(Konso language) & their land. Literal meaning of the term is a
“heavily forested hill/ area.”
• the highlands of Konso, w/c was covered by dense forest many
yrs ago, had been the traditional home of Konso people.
 Conti...
• Konso attracted the attention of local & international researchers
interested in human evolution, as it is one of the earliest human
settlement sites in the world.
• Agriculture-the major economic activity of the Konso
• Farmers combined crop production with cattle breeding
• they adopted soil conservation techniques notably the construction
of terraces, w/c proved helpful to convert rugged & hilly areas into
permanent cultivation.
• Konso’s economy depended on bee keeping & craftworks.
• Until late 19th c, the Konso people lived in walled villages (paletas)
w/c were further divided into three regions wards called Kanta
• Each village was ruled by a council of elders called hayyota who
were selected through direct participation of male members of the
village.
 Conti...
• Membership to the council was not hereditary but
rotated every eighteen years.
• the socio-political organization of the Konso based
on the clan or lineage group & generation set,
Tselta. The major function of the generation set was
informing the responsibilities expected of each age
group
• The Konso were divided into nine exogamous clans
namely Toqmaleta, Elayta, Saudata, Pasanta,
Kertita, Ishalayta, Mahaleta, Tikisayta and
Argamyta.
 5.5.4. Peoples & States in Southwestern
Part
• Wolayta- the term refers to a specific ethnic group in s.wn Ethiopia
& their powerful kdm, w/c first emerged as a state in the 13th c.
• the area was first probably inhabited by different communities
such as the Badia, Badiagadala & Aruja
• The state flourished in the late 18th & early 19th centuries
• The state was ruled by the Kawo (king), assisted by a council of
advisors.
• two successive dynasties ruled Wolayta: the Wolayta-Malla & the
Tigre from the 13th c to the late 19th c
• Founded in the 13th c by Motalami, the Wolayta-Malla ruled until
the end of the 15th c
• Then superseded by the Tigre dynasty, which supposedly founded
by Tigreans from northern Ethiopia.
 Conti...
• All fertile land was nominally owned by the king who granted
it to his dependents.
• land re/ps were ordered according to three basic principles
of social organization i.e. kinship, polity & social status.
• Then, rights over land were vested in the lineage group, the
crown (royal estate) & the nobility
• communal lands allocated for grazing & social gatherings to
w/c all members of the society except artisans had equal
access.
• The king rewarded people with land on grounds of gallant
deedsin battle & other contributions.
• The dominant food crop was enset Walayta.
 Conti...
• Kafa:-emerged in the 14th c & became prominent in the mid-17th c.
• The ruling Minjo dynasty & the medieval kdm of Ennarya had
close contact
• The Oromo expansion might have forced the ruling house of
Ennarya to flee south of the Gojeb w/c as a result brought Chri’ty
& the royal title tato to Kafa.
• Kafa’s economy was based on the cultivation of enset supported
by trade. A prosperous commerce took place with Oromo states of
the Gibe region
• Major export trade items of Walayta were musk, coffee, slaves,
Ivory, gold, honey-wax, & civet
• the kingdom expanded to Bonesho, Mashengo, Maji, Nao, She &
Chara in the 17th & 18th centuries.
 Conti...
• The major political center was at Bonga & other seat of power
was Andarcha, seven miles to southeast.
• The Tato was assisted by a council of seven advisors called
Mikrecho
• The Mikrecho served to moderate the power of the king
• The Kafa had a tradition of digging deep trenches called Kuripo as
defensive barrier
• Kaffa continued to be existed as an independent kdm until 1897.
• Yem:-was located along the En banks of the Gibe or to the
northeast of the Kafa kdm.
• Its economy combined agriculture, trade & crafts
• First , an indigenous dynasty called Dida or Halmam-Gamma ruled
Yem from its palace in Dudarkema/Zimarma near Oya, in the
vicinity of Bor Ama Mountain.
 Conti...
• At the top of the political ladder, the Amno (king) of Yem acted
as a chief priest with attributes of divinity
• A state council of 12 members named Astessor with its
chairperson Waso assisted the Amno in administering the state.
• Erasho were the provincial governors & responsible for digging
ditches called bero
• In the 14thc, the last King Oyokam/Amo Dasha was
• overthrown by people from the north who founded a new
dynasty called Mowa (Howa) with its center at Angari.
• In the 19th c, the neighboring state of Jimma Abba Jifar
• tried to control the Yem but later both was absorbed into the
imperial state of Ethiopia under E. Menilek II towards the end of
the 19th c.
 Conti...
• Gamo:-the Gamo inhabited areas from Lakes Chamo & Abaya to
the Gughe Mountain & beyond.
• A set of interrelated indigenous laws called the Woga defined
land-use in the Gamo highlands
• The cultivation of enset had been central to the subsistence of
Gamo highlands while maize & sweet potato were staple food
crops in the lowlands.
• Other crops of the highlands included barely, wheat, teff, peas,
beans & cabbage.
• Craftmaking, pot making, tanning & metalworking were other
modes of the subsistence system
• The first mention of the Gamo in written records was in the 15th
c in the praise songs of king Yishak (r.1413-30).
 Cont...
• The Gamo maintained relative autonomy from control by the
Chr’n Kdm after war with the Muslim sultanates weakened
the latter
• B/n the 16th & the 19th centuries, the Gamo lived in scattered
settlements & organized in different communities called dere.
• The dere were politically autonomous villages (units) but
shared three essential features:-
1) each dere had kawo (hereditary ruler)
2) every dere had its own initiates called halaqa and;
3) every dere had its own assembly place called dubusha
• Election to this office was open to all married men &
accorded representatives with provisional political authority
 Conti...
• It was through initiation or election that the dulata
(assembly) elected married men to positions
• The dulata had an institutional authority to give decisions on
different social, political & many other important matters
• It had also the power to impose sanctions as penalty on
individuals or groups who committed serious crimes
• the system baira, was ascribed & largely based on
genealogical seniority according to primogeniture
• The baira (senior) of the clan had a privilege over lineage
members.
• The baira made animal sacrifice on behalf of their juniors at
all levels of the community
 Cont...
• Dawuro:- mountainous & plateau at the central, & lowland
& plain at Gojeb & Omo river basins. Has three climatic
zones-geziya (highland), dashuwa (mid-altitude) & gad’a
(lowland)
• The livelihood of Dawuro people is based on mixed
agricultural activities. The language of Dawuro people is
Dawurotsuwa, a sub-group of the Omotic family.
• Dawuro had been inhabited by three major clans namely
Malla, Dogolla, & Amara w/c altogether were regarded as
Gok’as or K’omos
 Cont...
• The area was also home for people that came from
neighboring Omotic states such as Wolayta, Kucha, Gamo,
Gofa, & Kafa & from places like Gondar, Gojjam, Tigray &
Shewa.
• They came through political alliance & royal marriages
• By about 1700, the Kawuka dynasty had created a big state
that included various regions
• Among the rulers of the Kawuka dynasty of Dawuro, Kati
Irashu & Kati Halala were famous
• Kati Halala was the grandson of the king of Kafa & he
incorporated Konta into Dawuro.
• He is known for his stone fortifications for defence system
 Conti...
Ari:-
• different groups of people like Ari, Dasenech, Tsemayi,
Erbore, Hamer, Surma, Meniet, Nyangatom, Bodi, Male
had been inhabited around the Omo River basin since
early times.
• Major economic activities in the region were sedentary
agriculture, pastoralism & handcrafts
• The language of the Ari people is called Araf- branch of
the Omotic language family.
• The society was organized into ten independent clan
based chiefdoms. Hereditary clan chief known as Babi
headed each of these chiefdoms.
 Cont...
• The clan chief supported by the assistants like Godimis
(religious leaders), Zis (village heads) & Tsoikis (intelligence
agents of Babi).
• Refer to your module about the following
5.5.5. Peoples and States in the West:
 Berta and Gumuz
 Anywa, Nuer, Majang, The Kunama
 Conti...
5.6. The Gondarine Period and Zemene-
Mesafint
• 5.6.1. The Gondarine Period
A. Political Developments
• The period of Gondar begins from the reign of
Emperor Sartsa-Dengle when the political
center of Ethiopian emperors shifted to
Gondar area.
 Cont...
• The emperor established royal camp at Enfranz in 1571.
• E. Susenyos also tried to establish his capital near Gondar like at
Qoga, Gorgora, Danqaz & Azazo
• Gondar was founded in 1636 by Fasiled as a his permanent
political seat there.
• Gondar achieved its glory during the reigns of its first 3 successive
emperors:
• Fasiledas (r.1632–67), Yohannes I (r.1667-82) & Iyasu I (r.1682-
1706
The reforms during these emperors:-
 the restoration of Orthodox Church as state religion
 The establishment of a royal prison at Amba Wahni
 Cont...
 The establishment of a separate quarter for Muslims at Addis Alem
by Yohannes I
 Iyasu I, reformed land tenure system -land measurement in
Begemder, taxes, & customs, and revised the Fetha Negest (the civil
code)
 Iyasu the Great was assassinated by a faction under the leadership of
his own son, Tekle-Haymanot,
 political instability in Gondar involving intrigues and poisoning of
reigning monarchs.
 Tekle-Haymanot was crowned in 1706-later assassinated by Tewoflos
 Tewoflos was again killed by Yostos, who was also
poisoned and replaced by Dawit III, who himself was poisoned and
replaced by Bakafa.
 Cont...
 Bakafa (r.1721-30) tried to restore stability with his wife Etege
Mentewab until he was incapacitated in 1728.
 The involvement of the Oromo in the politics of Gondarine Period
 From 1728 to 1768, Etege Mentewab & her brother Ras-Bitwaded
Walda Le’ul (1732-1767 dominated the Gondarine court politics.
 Walda Le’ul was influential during the reigns of Iyasu II (1730-55) &
Iyoas (1755-69).
 Iyasu II (1730-55) was the son & successor of Bakafa
 The warlords of Zemene Messafent were contending for the title Ras
Bitwadad & position.
• In 1769 Ras Mikael killed Iyoas & he had got the title Ras Btwadad.
After the death of Iyoas, an old man
Yohannes II replaced by Ras Mika'el
 Cont...
• 1767-1769-power struggle in Gondar b/n groups of Wollo &
Quara. Following the death Ras-Bitwaded Walda Le’ul in 1767,
Etege Mentewab was challenged by Wabi Amito (the wife of
Iyasu II & mother of Iyoas), her daughter-in-law from Wollo.
• To counter the growing power of the Wollo Oromo in the royal
court, Mentewab sought the alliance of Ras Mika'el Sehul of
Tigray
• Mentewab gave a power base to the wollo Oromo by arranging
political marriage b/n her son Iyasu II & Wabi. When the Wollo
Oromo began to enjoy a leading political role, conflict began b/n
the factions & the Wollo Oromo w/c led to political disorder.
 Cont...
 Soon Ras Mika'el killed Yohannes II and put his son Takla-
Haymanot II (1769-77) on power
 This marked the onset of the period of Zemene-Mesafint(1769-
1855).
B. Achievements of the Gondarine Period
 Gondar served as the centre of adm’n, learning, commerce,
education, art, and crafts for more than two centuries
 Gondar had great influence on the country’s cultural
developments.
 It repeat the splendors of Aksum and Lalibela.
 Its (Gondarine Period) history described as Ethiopian
Renaissance.
 Cont...
Architecture
 secular buildings like castles, bridges, residences, bath,
library, towers, fortifications & there are squared, round and
unknown shape of churches
 the most impressive building known as Fasil Gemb
 The Gondarine architecture would have started before the
reignof emperor Fasiledas during the reign of Emperor
Sartsa-Dengle at about 1586, at Guzara near Enfranz.
5.6.2. The Period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855)
It refers to the period when actual position of political power
was in the hands of different regional lords
 Cont...
• The period of Z. M -from the time Ras Michael
Sehul"assassinated" king Iyoas in 1769 to 1855, when Kasa
Hailu was crowned as Tewodros II.
• Ras Mika’el who was a king maker in the period- took strong
measures against the nobility. Because of his unpopularity he
was defeated at the battle of Sarba-Kussa in 1771
• The main political regions that Zemene-Mesafint lords ruled
were Tigray, Semen, Dembiya, Begemedir, Lasta, Yejju, Wollo,
Gojjam and Shewa
• The “Yejju dynasty”(founded by Ali I Guwangul in 1786) was
the leading power during the Zemen-Mesafint with the center
at Debre-tabor.
 Cont...
• Yejju rule reached at its peak under Gugsa Marso (r.1803-
1825) who made incessant struggle against Ras Walde-
Silassie of Enderta & Dejj.Sabagadis Woldu of Agame
Major features of Zemene-Mesafint include:
 absence of effective central government;
 the growing power and influence of the regional
warlords;
 the domination of Yejju lords over other lords in northern
Ethiopia;
 rivarly and compeition among regional lords to
 Cont...
 assume the position of king maker;
 establishment of fragile coalition to advance
political interests;
 Ethiopian Orthodox Church was unable to
play its traditional role of unifying the state
due to doctrinal disputes;
 Revival of foreign contacts that ended the
“Closed Door Policy.”
 6. INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS & EXTERNAL RELATIONS OF
ETHIOPIA & THE HORN, 1800-1941

• 6.1.1. Peoples & States in S-Central, S’wn, &

W’n Ethiopia
 CHAPTER SEVEN
7.1. Post-1941 Imperial Period
7.1.1. Restoration & Consolidation of Imperial Power and
External Relations
• A. Ethiopia & Britain
• Br. continued to exercise the upper hand b/se of the role it
played in the liberation of Ethiopia from Fascist rule
• Another reason for the preponderant influence of Br in
Ethiopia’s domestic & international affairs was the
continuation of WWII (1939-45)
• The 1942 and 1944 agreements that Emperor Haile-Selassie
I was forced to sign with the British show the ascendancy of
the latter.
 Conti...
• The 1942 agreement gave Britain a final authority
over Ethiopia’s foreign affairs, territorial integrity,
administration, finances, the military & the police.
• British citizens held key posts in Ethiopian adm’n as
advisors & judges while at the same time they
maintained total control over the country’s police
force, w/c was set up in February 1942.
• Additionally, British aircraft had exclusive aviation
rights & the emperor had to obtain approval from
the Commander in Chief of the British Forces in East
Africa, Sir Philip Mitchell.
 Conti...
• the British also assumed control over currency & foreign
exchange as well as import-exports.
• The Emperor resented such restrictions to his powers &
made some diplomatic engagements
• Later by the efforts of the USA & friends of Ethiopia such
as Sylvia Pankhurst, Britain relaxed the restrictions
imposed upon the Ethiopian gov’t
The second Anglo-Ethiopian agreement of 1944
• According to this agreement
 the priority accorded to the British minster over all other
foreign diplomats in Ethiopia was lifted
 Conti...
 The Ethiopian gov’t could now employ non-British foreign
personnel & regained control over the Addis Ababa-Djibouti
railway, a vital line of external communication.
 Then Ethiopia got free access to foreign goods & services
including arms & ammunitions
 The British also agreed to evacuate their army from the
region once they equip Ethiopia’s military force- a task
mandated to the British Military Mission to Ethiopia (BMME)
 The BMME assisted the gov’t of Ethiopia in organizing,
training, & adm’n of its army until 1951.
 Haile-Selassie I Harar MilitaryAcademy was modeled after a
British Military Academy called Sandhurst
 Conti...
• The Ethiopian gov’t requested union of Eritrea with
Ethiopia claiming that it was historically, culturally &
economically inseparable from Ethiopia.
• Both Eritrea & Ogaden were part of the Ethiopian
empire before they fell into Italian hands in 1890 and
1936 respectively
• However, Britain insisted that Ogaden should be
merged with the former Italian Somaliland & British
Somaliland to form what they called “Greater Somalia”.
• Similarly, the western & northerAn lowlands of Eritrea
were intended by the British to be part of Sudan.
 Conti...
• They wanted to integrate the Tigrigna speaking
highlands of Eritrea with Tigray to form a separate state.
• Therefore, in Sept 1945 at the London conference of
Allied powers Ethiopia’s claims to Eritrea & Ogaden were
rejected.
• Later In 1948, the British left parts of Ogaden, & in 1954,
they withdrew from the region.
• In Eritrea, people were divided into:
 the Unionists those who wanted a union with Ethiopia
 The Liberal Progressive Party & later the Muslim League
sought for separation and independence
 Conti...
• In 1948, the question of Eritrea was referred to the UNSC
by Br, Fr, USA & USSR.
• The UN appointed a commission of five men from Burma,
Guatemala, Norway, Pakistan & South Africa to find out the
actual wishes of Eritreans.
• Then Guatemala & Pakistan recommended granting
independence to Eritrea.
• While Norway recommended union with Ethiopia but
South Africa & Burma recommended Federation
• On December 2, 1950, UN Resolution 390V granted the
Federation of Eritrea with Ethiopia, which came into effect
in 1952
 Cont...
• However, this arrangement did not satisfy both unionists & the
independence bloc
• On Nov 14, 1962, the Eritrean Parliament, under pressure from
the Ethiopian gov’t, resolved to dissolve the Federation &
placed Eritrea under the imperial umbrella.
B. Ethiopia & the USA
• The first official contacts b/n Ethiopia & the USA traced back to
1903 when Ethiopia signed a Treaty of Friendship & Commerce
with the USA delegate led under Robert P. Skinner
• Following WWII, two super-powers, the Soviet Union & the
United States emerged
• In Ethiopia & the Horn, British pre-dominance in 1940s was
replaced by the dominance of the United States in the 1950s
 Cont...
• to ensure his sovereign political authority from British
domination, to modernize his country & consolidate his power,
Haile-Selassie I turned towards the United States as a powerful
ally than Britain
• American interest in the region began to grow especially after
they acquired a communication base in Asmara-Radio Marina
from the Italians.
• The radio station was later on renamed Qagnew after the
Ethiopian force that fought on the side of the Americans in the
Korean War (1950-3).
• In 1943, the Ethiopian vice Finance Minister, Yilma Deressa,
visited the US to request expertise to assist the country's dev’t. In
response, USA extended the Lend-Lease Agreement with Ethiopia
& sent a technical mission led by Perry Fellows in May 1944
 Conti...
• Ep. Haile-SelassieI & the American President, Franklin D.
Roosevelt, met in Egypt & discussed recognition of an
American Sinclair Company to prospect for oil in Ogaden at
the beginning of 1945
• The renewed contact b/n the two countries was concretized
with the signing of two agreements in the 1950s.
 First, the Point Four Agreement that enabled subsequent
American assistance in education & public health was
signed in 1952.
 Second, the Ethio-US Treaty that granted a continued
American use of the Qagnew base in return for military
assistance was signed in 1953
 Cont...
• After the 1953 treaty, the US launched a military aid
program named the American Military Assistance Advisory
Group (MAAG) to equip Ethiopia’s armed forces.
• The MAAG was to train 60,000 Ethiopian soldiers in three
separate divisions.
• In the year between 1953 and 1968, over 2,500 Ethiopians
received various forms of military training in the US.
• By 1970, 60% of US military aid to Africa went to Ethiopia
• B/n 1946 & 1972, US military aid was over 180 million US
Dollar.
• Anti-tank & anti-aircraft weapons, naval craft, infantry
weapons as well as field jackets were of American origin
 Cont...
• Civil aviation, road transport, & education were other spheres
that the Americans took active part
• From 8 Sept to 15 Dec 1945, the foundin gconference of the UN
was held at San Francisco. There, the Ethiopian delegation
approached American delegates for assistance to form a civilian
airline. Hence, an agreement was concluded with
Transcontinental & Wn World Airline (TWA) that established
Ethiopian Air Lines (EAL) in 1946
• In 1962, EAL entered the jet age.
• However, most of the pilots were American at least for 3 three
decades
• EAL got its first Ethiopian national pilot, Alemayehu Abebe, in
1957 and Colonel Simeret Medhne became the first Ethiopian
General Manager of EAL in 1971.
 Conti...
• The Imperial Board of Telecommunication was established with the
help of International Telephone & Telegraph (ITT) organization b/n
1950 and 1952
• In Jan 1951, with financial loan from the International Bank for
Reconstruction & Dev’t (IBRD), the Imperial High Way Authority
(IHA) was set up based on the model of the US Bureau of Roads
w/c continued to be run by Americans until 1962.
• Together with ELA’s domestic network the improvement of road
transport along with communication services continued.
 In the field of education
• A variety of American scholarship programs under USAID & African
American Institute African Graduate Fellowship Program (AFGRAD)
offered opportunities for many Ethiopians to go to the United
States for their second and third Degrees
 Conti...
• Many American volunteers came to Ethiopia to teach in
Ethiopian schools under the Peace Corps Program.
• Sweden & Norway advisors were entrusted to the Air force &
navy successively
• Germany & Israel trained & equipped the Police Force while
the Swedes supported the Imperial Bodyguard
• The Harar Military Academy was entrusted to British trained
Indians.
• In 1956, the Qoqa Dam was built with war reparations money
that the Italians agreed to pay.
• Russians established good relations with Ethiopia through
their exhibition, library around city hall, post office,
mathematics, & literature.
 Conti...
7.1.2. Socio-Economic Developments
• Agriculture remained the leading economic sector in providing
employment for about 90%of the population, generating about 70%
of the national GDP supplying almost 100% of the country’s income
from export trade
• peasants in the northern & central highland parts of Ethiopia held
land in the formof rist.
• In the 1970s, more than 66% of the peasant farmers cultivated less
than 0.5 hectares
• In Sn Ethiopia, gov’t grants were made by the Gov’t for large number
of its supporters tenancy was widespread.
• Tenancy was very high outside northern region. Tenants surrendered
up to 60 percent of their produce to landlords who mostly lived in
towns or the capital.
 Conti...
• the extreme taxation to w/c smallholding peasants were
subjected to was too high discouraging peasants from
maximizing production beyond subsistence levels.
• From 1953 to 1974, the annual growth rate of agricultural
production was only 2.4 %, w/c was lower than the 2.5 %
population growth rate
• Consequently, Ethiopia ranked among the countries with
very low per capita income.
• This coupled with external pressure from donors, induced
the gov’t to establish a Land Reform Committee in 1961
• This later became the Land Reform & Dev’t Authority that
grew to become the Ministry of Land Reform &
Administration.
 Conti...
• Yet no meaningful reform was implemented b/se it would
affect the vested economic & political interests of
landlords
• In the 1960s & 1970s, commercial agriculture was
expanding especially in Sn Shewa, the Setit-Humera region
on the Sudan border, & in the Awash Valley
• The mechanization of farming in these areas led to eviction
of tenants.
• Profitability of agriculture led some landlords to work the
land by themselves.
• Sometimes they rented the land under their ownership to
whoever offered them better price in cash
 Conti...
• The effect of all these was the eviction of tenants
• to enhance the productivity of small farmers gov’t launched
comprehensive agricultural package programs
• The most notable in this regard were:
 the Chilalo Agricultural Development Unit (CADU) & Wolayta
Agricultural Development Unit (WADU).
 CADU was launched in 1967 through the initiative of the
Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA) while the
World Bank supported WADU
 The major objective of the package programs was demonstrating
the effectiveness & efficiency of agricultural packages to pave
the way for subsequent nationwide emulation of the intensive
package approach but without effective land reform