AN INTRODUCTION TO RHETORIC

Adapted from Everyday Use, Hephziba Roskelly, 2005

and The Language of Composition, Renee H. Shea, 2008
What is rhetoric?
 According to Aristotle (384-322 BC), rhetoric is “the faculty of
observing in any given case the available means of persuasion.”
 Using language effectively to persuade, inform, educate, or entertain

It refers to two things:

 The art of analyzing all the language choices that writer, speaker,
reader, listener might make in a given situation so that the text
becomes meaningful, purposeful, and effective.

 The specific features of text, written or spoken, that cause them to

be meaningful, purposeful, and effective for readers or listeners in a
given situation.
 What does being skilled at rhetoric mean?

 Being able to make good speeches and write good

papers, but also having the ability to read other
people’s compositions and listen to their spoken
words with a discerning eye and critical ear.

 Reading not only to understand the main and

supporting points of what someone else writes, but
also to analyze the decisions the author makes as
he/she works to accomplish a purpose for a specific
audience.
 What does being skilled at rhetoric mean?

 Being able to plan and write compositions, not just

write them.

 Being able to examine a situation and determine

what has already been said and written, what
remains unresolved, and what you might say or
write to continue the conversation or persuade
readers to take action.
Lou Gehrig’s Farewell Address
Why is this an effective speech?
 Context: the occasion or the time and place it was
written or spoken
 Purpose-goal that the speaker or writer wants to
achieve
 win agreement
 persuade us to take action
 evoke sympathy, make someone laugh
 inform, provoke, celebrate, repudiate
 put forth a proposal, secure support
 bring about a favorable decision
Why is this an effective speech?
 Thesis, claim, assertion, argument: main idea

 Subject: Writers or speakers evaluate what they already know, what

others have said, and what kind of evidence develops their position

 Speaker (Persona): the character the speaker creates when s/he writes
or speaks-depending on the context, purpose, subject, and audience

 Audience: Each audience requires the speaker/writer to use different

information to shape the argument effectively.

 Lou Gehrig’s understanding of how subject, speaker, and audience

interact determines his speech.
Aristotelian triangle
 Aristotle described the
interaction among
subject, speaker, and
audience (or subject,
writer, and reader), as
well as how this
interaction determines
the structure and
language of the
argument (a text or
image that establishes a
position).
The Rhetorical Triangle
Speaker
(Persona)

Audience Subject
Key #1: Understanding Persona
If you understand persona, you are able to do two things:
 Speak or write so the audience perceives you as a distinct
character, usually one who is educated, trustworthy, and
well-intentioned.

 Make inferences or judgments about the character and

personality of another speaker or writer, and analyze how
that writer appeals to the audience, how he invites the
audience to interact with material, and how he wants them
to act afterwards.
Key #1: Understanding Persona
 Writers usually want the persona they develop and the voice
they use to be genuine and reflect who they really are.

 Sometimes they use another voice for comic effect, or to

underscore the seriousness of a situation.

 Writers use their voices to affect a reader’s understanding and

belief.
Key #2: Understanding Appeals to the Audience

 Ethos (character): Demonstrates credibility of speaker; shows

that he/she knows important and relevant information about
the topic at hand, and is a good person with the audience’s
best interests in mind. Emphasizes shared values between the
speaker and the audience.

 Logos (reason): Offers clear, rational ideas and develops them

with appropriate reasoning, examples, or details.

 Pathos (emotion): Draws on the emotions and interests of the

audience so they will be sympathetic to his/her central ideas
and arguments.
Key #3: Understanding Subject Matter \and its
Treatment
 What you decide to include in a composition
is innately connected to:
why you are writing,
whom you are writing to, and
what kind of text you are composing.
 4 essential concepts:
 Any question or issue that might become the subject of
a text must have at least two paths of interpretation,
analysis, or argument.
 Effective material is generated by capitalizing on what
the audience already knows, making them curious to
know more, and then satisfying that curiosity by
building on what they already know.
 The basic move of all rhetorical texts is “claim-plus-
support.”
 Central responsibility is to generate substantial material
to support the points you are making.
Revised Rhetorical Triangle
Speaker
(Persona)

Context

Purpose

Audience Subject
Another Rhetorical Framework

S – Subject
O – Occasion
A – Audience
P – Purpose
S – Style
T- Tone
Classical Model of Arrangement
A five-part structure for an essay or speech:

 Introduction: Piques the reader’s interest, challenges them,

or otherwise catches there attention; often where the writer
establishes ethos.

 Narration: Provides factual information and background

material on the subject at hand; establishes why the subject
is a problem that needs addressing; often appeals to pathos.
Classical Model, cont.
 Confirmation: Usually the major part of the text; includes
the proof needed to make the writer’s case; most specific
and concrete detail; appeals to logos.

 Refutation: Addresses the counterargument; a bridge

between the writer’s proof and the conclusion; appeal is
largely to logos.

 Conclusion: Brings essay to a close; usually appeals to

pathos, reminds audience of ethos established earlier;
brings all the writer’s ideas together and answers the
question “so what?”
Patterns of Development:
Arrangement According to Purpose
 Narration: Storytelling or recounting a series of events;
chronological; story supports a thesis.

 Description: Emphasizes the senses by painting a picture;

used to establish mood or atmosphere.

 Process Analysis: Explains how something works, how to

do something, or how something was done; key is clarity.
Patterns of Development, cont.
 Exemplification: Provides a series of examples to make
argument clearer and more persuasive; induction: a series
of specific examples leads to a general conclusion.
 Comparison & Contrast: Juxtaposes two things to highlight
similarities and differences; used to analyze information
carefully, revealing insights into the nature of the
information being analyzed.
 Classification & Division: Sorts material or ideas into
major categories by answering the question “What goes
together and why?”; makes connections between things that
may seem unrelated.
Patterns of Development, cont.
 Definition: Lays the foundation to establish common ground or
identifies areas of conflict; clarify terms.

 Cause & Effect: Analyzes the causes that lead to a certain

effect, or the effects that result from a cause; important to
carefully trace the cause & effect, and to recognize all possible
contributing causes.
CONDUCTING A
RHETORICAL
ANALYSIS
Goal of Rhetorical Analysis
 Break down the text as a whole into the sum of its
parts

 What is the writer trying to achieve?

 What strategies is he using to meet this goal?

 Are these strategies effective?

Questions to Ask While Reading Critically

 What is the general subject of the text?

 Does it have meaning to you?
 Is it controversial?
 Does it bring up other associations in your mind?

 What is the thesis?

 How does the thesis comment on the subject?
Questions to Ask While Reading Critically

 What is the purpose of the argument?

 What is the author hoping to achieve?

 What is the tone of the text?

 How is that tone developed throughout the piece?
 Is the tone effective in achieving the purpose?

 Who is the audience for this argument?

Three Appeals
 Does the author consider the Rhetorical Triangle?
 If not, where does the author fail in this regard
 If so, what are the strongest appeals and how do

they affect the success of the piece?

Three Appeals
 Appeals to Ethos
 Does the author establish credibility?
 Does the author seem trustworthy?
 How does the author handle the subject and/or the
audience?
Three Appeals
 Appeals to Pathos
 Does the author make and emotional appeal?
 What techniques does he use to reach the audience
emotionally?
 Is the appeal to emotion primary or secondary to the
author’s purpose?
Three Appeals
 Appeals to Logos
 What facts (if any) are used in the argument?
 What facts are left out of the argument that might
affect the piece?
 Does the argument rely on logic?
Claims
 What claims are made in the argument?
 What techniques or devices does the author use to
establish these claims?
 What issues are raised in the piece?
Considering the Context
What are the contexts considered in the piece:
• Social
• Political
• Historical
• Cultural
Whose interests do these contexts serve?
Who gains or loses as a result of the argument?
Shape of the Argument
 How does the shape or arrangement of the piece
affect the argument?
 Does the argument go from specific to general?
 Inductive reasoning – makes a claim based on looking at a
number of specific examples. Small to big.
 Does the argument go from general to specific?
 Deductive reasoning – makes a claim based on a general
principal then applying to a specific case.
 Are there headings or divisions in the writing?
How does the Style of the Argument
Work to Persuade an Audience?
 How would you characterize the overall style of
the piece?

 Formal/informal
 Serious/light-hearted
 Slanted/objective etc.
 Is there anything unique or interesting about the style
that is worth discussing?
How does the Language of the Argument
Work to Persuade an Audience?

 Consider the diction

 How does the word choice relate to the purpose?
 How does the sentence structure or syntax affect the
piece? Do sentences stand out that might be
significant?
Making Connections
 No matter what items you choose to comment on
during a rhetorical analysis, you must make
connections to your thesis or to the author’s
purpose.
 Don’t just make observations about a text, you
must tie it to something important about the
bigger picture of the piece as a whole!