SOCIOLOGICAL

PERSPECTIVES
Ms. Elbenezer Andrew
  To define key terms.
 To identify and outline the different Sociological Perspectives.

Learning  To explain and give examples of the Macro and Micro theories
in Sociology.
Outcomes  To differentiate between the Conflict theory and Functionalism.
 To gain knowledge of the various branches of Sociology.
  There are two main types of Sociological theory.

I. Macro Level
Structural or Marco perspective:

Understanding  Focuses on group relation and interaction in society.

the  Examines the way in which society as a whole fits together.

Perspectives of  They tend to see human activity as

Sociology a product of the social structure.

Example:
a) Functionalism
b) Conflict/ Marxism
 II. Micro Level
Social Action, Interpretive Perspective:

Understanding  Focuses on the individual’s interaction with society (smaller

the groups).

Perspectives of  They tend to see society as a product of human activity.

Sociology Example:
a) Interactionism
  The Functionalist perspective achieved its greatest popularity among American
Sociologists in the 1940s and 1950s.

While European Functionalists originally focused on explaining the inner

workings of social order, American functionalists focused on discovering the
functions of human behavior.

Among these American functionalist sociologists is: Robert. B. Merton (1910)

The Macro  He states that some social institutions can be functional, non-functional or

Level: dysfunctional.
 Merton divides human functions into two types:
Functionalism 1. Manifest: functions that are intentional and obvious.

2. Latent: functions that are unintentional and not obvious.

 Functionalism does not encourage people to take on an active role in changing
their social environment, even when such change may benefit them.
 Instead, Functionalism sees active social change as undesirable because the
various parts of society will compensate naturally for any problems that may
arise.
  Each aspect of society is interdependent and contributes to society’s functioning
as a whole.
 The government or state provides education for the children of the family; which
in turn pays taxes on which the state depends to keep itself running.
 Functionalists believe that society is held together by social consensus or
cohesion; where by members of the society agree upon and work together to
achieve what is best for society as a whole.

The Macro  Emile Durkheim suggested that social consensus takes one of two forms:

Level: I. Mechanical solidarity: is a form of social cohesion that arises when people in

Functionalism
a society maintain similar values and beliefs and engage in similar types of
work.
 This type of solidarity most commonly occurs in traditional, simple societies
such as those in which everyone herds cattle or farms.
For instance: Amish society

II. Organic solidarity: is a form of social cohesion that arises when the people
in a society are interdependent but hold on to varying values and beliefs and
engage in different types of work.
 1. Views society as a system.
System: a set of interrelated and interdependent parts that come together to form
a whole.

2. Functionalist believe that they are which are conditions necessary for the
existence of society.

Characteristics These conditions are called Functional prerequisites:

of
I. Adaption
II. Goal attainment

Functionalism III. Integration

IV. Pattern maintenance
3. Falls under the category of Positivism (Emile Durkheim)
 This is a system of philosophy based on experience and empirical knowledge
of natural phenomena.
 It involves the principle and methods of natural science to the study of society.
 4. Functionalism advocates the occurence of Social change.
 According to Parsons change should be gradual and
evolutionary.
 Parsons uses five pairs of Pattern Variables to describe change
in values as a society is transformed from traditional to
modern.

Characteristics
of
Functionalism
  The Conflict Perspective originated primarily out of Karl
Marx’s writings on class struggles.
 Today, conflict theorists find social conflict between any
The Macro groups in which the potential for inequality exists. Inclusive of:

Level: The race, gender, religious, political, economic.

Conflict  Conflict theorists note that unequal groups usually have

conflicting values and agendas, causing them to compete
theory/Marxism against one another.
 This constant competition between groups forms the basis for
the ever‐changing nature of society.
  Marco in nature (group competition)

Characteristics of the Conflict theory:

a. Historical processes
b. Dialectical materialism
c. The material basis of social life

The Macro  Historically, societies have been characterized by clashes of competing

interest between economic groups also known as social class.
Level: The
Conflict They are:
1. The Bourgeoisie or Capitalist

theory/Marxism 2. The Proletariat or the Working Class

 Inequality and injustice among groups.
 Exploitation and subjugation of the less powerful groups.
 Conflict is desirable because it could lead to social change such as the
introduction of a classless society.
 There is a state of False Class Consciousness.
 Functionalism Confict theory Similarities
Focuses on the Focuses on the Views society as a
Functionalism
positive aspects of negative, conflicted, whole.
society that and ever‐changing
contribute to its nature of society.
stability.
Functionalists Conflict theorists Refers to the family
defend the status challenge the status as universal.
Differences quo, avoid social quo, encourage
between the change, and believe
people cooperate to
social change (even
when this means
Conflict Theory as a meabs of social revolution),
and Functionalism achieving social
order.
and believe that
rich and powerful
people force social
order on the poor
and the weak.
Functionalism Conflict theory Agrees that a social
focuses on balance focuses on structure exist in
and stability within competition society.
a social system. between groups.
 There are several branches of Interactionism.
1. Symbolic interactionism: George Herbert Mead (1863–
1931).

Characteristics of Symbolic Interactionism

The Micro  Life is made up of symbols that convey specific meaning.

 View people as living in a world of meaningful objects.
Level:  Assumes that individuals place meanings on objects in the
Interactionism environment, and it is these meanings that determine their
behaviour.

Symbolic Interaction comprises of three chef components:

I. The Symbol
II. The Self
III. Interaction
 I. The Symbol
 Mead claims that for sense to be made of the real world and the
actions of other individuals, there must be shared symbols.
 These allow all members of society to share a common
Micro Level: perception of reality.
1. Symbolic  The world is therefore made up of symbols that are created by
Interactionism humans to give meaning or order in society.
 Such symbols include language, which facilitates
The Symbol communication among individuals and acts as a reference point
from which individuals can base their interaction.
 II. The Self
 Individuals in society as ‘actors’.
 According to Mead, the mind and the self are socially constructed in
a social process through which individuals or social actors interact.
 Out of this interaction each person internalizes how they are
perceived by others.
 The individual’s notion of self comprises of two chef components:
Micro Level: a) ‘I’: Mead refers to the ‘I’ as the notion that we perceive others
1. Symbolic have of us.

Interactionism b) ‘Me’: this is important because reference groups, or what Mead

terms ‘the significant’ and ‘the generalized other;’ influences an
The Self individuals interaction in society.
You Know:
DID YOU KNOW:
That the ‘significant other’ comprises of the people and
groups that are close to us and have a direct link in our
lives?

That the ‘generalised other’ consists of members of the

wider society who indirectly influences our social
interactions?
 III. Interaction
 No interaction is possible unless individuals are aware of the
intention of others.
Micro Level:
1. Symbolic  In society, individuals assume that they share common
Interactionism understandings of the symbols (for example, language) and so
place themselves in the position of others and react
Interaction accordingly.
 Therefore, social interaction depends on the meaning that
individuals place on things and on how they are perceived by
others.
 2. Ethnomethodolgy
 Founded in the early 1960s by Harold Garfinkel an American Sociologist.
 Ethnomethodology: the study of common sense and practical reasoning.
 Ethnomethodology suggests that all meanings are subjective and as a result,
reality is purely subjective or socially constructed to create a sense of order.

Micro Level:  Social life appears to be orderly, when in fact it is very chaotic.

2.Ethnomethodo  Social order is constructed in the minds of the individuals and is achieved
through a process called ‘the documentary method’.

logy  In this process, individuals, as social actors; make sense of social life by
observing a set of unwritten rules that guide routine situations.
 Garfinkel suggested that people should make sense of a senseless reality, such
as: making sense of statements or symbols in the context in which they occur.
  3. Phenomenology: Alfred Schutz (1899–1959) adapted Phenomenology
from the work of Edmund Husserl (1859–1938).
 Phenomenology: a school of philosophy that attempts to explain social
action by studying the phenomena or human experience first-hand.
 This perspective opposes the Positivist view of Sociology.

Micro Level:  It does not believe that human beings can be scientifically studied using the
methods and principles of natural sciences.

3.  Phenomenological studies require that the researcher actually experience

Phenomenolog the phenomena being investigated because the only way the true meaning

y
can be discovered is by having lived experiences.
 It attempts to discover the essence of the objects being studied in society.
 It argues that people make sense of the world by a process known as
‘typification.’
 It entails the use of a stock of common sense knowledge and experience to
categorize phenomena such as: objects, events and situations.
 3. Dramaturgy (Erving Goffman)
 In Goffman’s book: The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life, he discusses impression
management.and how this explains individual behaviour. (Goffman 1959).
 People ‘stage’ social life.
 Social interaction by individuals is similar to the interaction of actors in a play, to be accepted
by the audience, the actor has to portray their role convincingly; through impression
management.
 The actor on stage follows a script to portray his or her character.
 Individuals in society adopt similar roles in everyday interaction, that is a front stage and a
back stage role.

Micro Level:  The audience is only allowed to view the ‘on-stage’ activities and not the activities
‘backstage,’ if the performance is to be convincing.

4. Dramaturgy  Individuals in society adopt similar roles in everyday interaction, that is a ‘front stage’ and a
‘back stage’ role; the role that the person adopts depends on the audience.

DID YOU KNOW:

The ‘front stage’ is what the individual wants the world to
see?

The ‘back stage’ is what is kept out of the view of the world,
only certain individuals are privy to the ‘back stage?’
Other branches
of the Micro • Other Perspectives
Level • Feminist
a) Liberal
b) Radical
c) Marixt

Post modernism
  Sociology of the Family: studies types of family and relationships within
the family.
 Sociology of the Media: focuses on issues such as media ownership and
influences on audience.
 Sociology of Race Relations: is concerned with racial and ethnic
inequalities and the ways of reducing them.
 Sociology of Inequality/Stratification and Mobility: studies different forms
of social inequality.
The Branches  Political Sociology: studies a wide range of topics such as voting

of Sociology behaviour and characteristics of leaders.

 Sociology of Religion: focuses on issues like secularization and
syncretism.
 Gender Studies: examines themes such as patriarchy and women’s
equality.
 Sociology of Language: tries to understand differences in language
between people based on social factors such as ethnicity and class.
 NAME AREA OF STUDY
Gerontology the study of ageing in society.
Rural Sociology/Urban Sociology the study of rural and urban social
systems.

Criminology the application of sociological

theories and concepts to the
understanding of crime and
deviance.
The Branches Demograpy the study of populations: theories
of Sociology and population issues.

Continued The Sociology of Development the attempt to explain why some

societies are more advanced than
others.
Environmental Sociology focuses on social factors influencing
behaviour towards the environment.

The Sociology of Education studies which include the study of

teaching, schools, equality,
achievement and stratification.
 Reference
Sociology for Caribbean Students
(Mustapha Nasser, 2013)