Heat & Thermodynamics

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 Thermodynamics
• Thermodynamics is the science that deals
with the relations b/w heat and mechanical
energy
 Must Know…

• Basic concept of Heat , Work and Energy

• Important Dimensions & Units

• Concept of Control Volume

• Reversible & Irreversible Process

• Laws of TD (Zeroth, First & Second)

• Specific Heat
 Heat vs Work
• In thermodynamics, heat is often contrasted
with work:
– heat applies to individual particles
• such as atoms or molecules
– work applies to objects (or a system as a whole).

 Heat involves stochastic (or random) motion equally

distributed among all degrees of freedom.
 Work is directional, confined to one or more specific
degrees of freedom.
 Heat
• Heat is a form of energy
– Transferred from a warmer substance or body to a cooler
one.
– Energy in transit due to temperature change
• SI unit : joule (J)
• However, in many applied fields in engineering
– BTU : the British thermal unit ( 1 BTU - 1055 joules )
– Calorie (1 cal – 4.18 joules) , are often used.
• Thermodynamics model
– Heat engine
– Heat pump or refrigerator
 Heat Transfer
• Three modes of heat transfer:
– Conduction,
– Convection, and
– Radiation.
 Energy
• Energy is the quantitative property that must
be transferred to an object in order to
perform work on, or to heat, the object.

• Energy is a conserved quantity

• The SI unit of energy is the joule (J)

– which is the energy transferred to an object by
the work of moving it a distance of 1 m against
a force of 1 N .
 Heat & Energy
• Heat (Energy)
– is the flow of thermal energy between two objects
of different temperature
» energy in transit due to temperature change.
whereas
• (Thermal) Energy
– tells about how much is the transfer of energy due
to temperature difference between two bodies.
» internal energy stored in the system maintained
at a certain temperature
 Dimensions & Units
• Heat : 4.184 Joule of heat energy (or one calorie) is
required to raise the temperature of a unit weight (1
g) of water from 0oC to 1oC, or from 32oF to 33.8oF.
– (The unit of heat in the SI-system the Joule is. a unit of energy
equal to the work done when a force of one newton acts through
a distance of one meter. [kg⋅m2⋅s−2 ]
• Energy : 1 Joule (J) is the MKS unit of energy, equal
to the force of one Newton acting through one
meter. [1 kg⋅m2⋅s−3 ]
– 1 kilowatt-hour is the energy of one kilowatt power
flowing for one hour.
 Concept of
Continuum & Control Volume
• Continuum :
– Continuous homogenous medium
– Macroscopic approach
• Control Volume :
– A volume fixed in space or moving with constant flow
velocity through which the continuum (gas / liquid)
flows.
• Mass flow in & out of a system (thermal device)
– Property of selected region in space
– The surface enclosing the control volume is referred to
as the control surface.
Reversible Process
• In thermodynamics, a reversible process is a
process whose direction can be "reversed" by
inducing infinitesimal changes to some
property of the system via its surroundings,
with no increase in entropy.
• Throughout the entire reversible process, the
system is in thermodynamic equilibrium with
its surroundings.
Irreversible Process

• In an irreversible process, finite changes are

made, therefore the system is not at equilibrium
throughout the process.
– At the same point in an irreversible cycle, the system
will be in the same state, but the surroundings are
permanently changed after the each cycle.
• Increases the entropy of the universe.
– The second law of thermodynamics can be used to
determine whether a process is reversible or not.
Laws of Thermodynamics
 Zeroth Law
• The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that
if two thermodynamic systems are each
in thermal equilibrium with a third, then they
are in thermal equilibrium with each other
 First Law of Thermodynamics
• In a cyclic process

• Non-cyclic process
 Limitation
• A machine cannot create work from nothing
nor it can deliver more work than it receives
• PMM1
– is Perpetual Motion Machine of First kind
– There can be no machine which would
continuously supply mechanical work without
some other form of energy disappearing
simultaneously.
 Second Law of Thermodynamics
• This law states that it is impossible for self-
acting machine, unaided by any external
agency, to convey heat from a body at low
temperature to a body at higher temperature
 Limitation
• Heat cannot itself pass from a cold body to a
warmer body. This statement, known as
second law of thermodynamics, was given by
Clausius.
– Refrigerating machine
• PMM-2
• Perpetual Motion Machine of second kind
• There can be no machine which would continuously supply
mechanical work without some other form of energy
disappearing simultaneously.
 Principles of Thermodynamics

• System
– quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study.
• Surroundings
– mass or region outside the system
• Boundary
– real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its
surroundings.
– The boundaries of a system can be fixed or movable.
– Mathematically, the boundary has zero thickness, no mass, and
no volume
 Types of System

• Closed system or control mass

• Open system or control volume
• Isolated system – closed system that does not
communicate with the surroundings by any means.
• Adiabatic system – system without transfer of heat or matter
between a thermodynamic system and its surroundings,
energy is transferred to its surroundings only as work.
• Rigid system - closed system that communicates with
the surroundings by heat only
 Closed vs Open
Closed system or control mass Open system or control volume

-Fixed amount of mass, and no - Open system is a properly

mass can cross its boundary.
- Energy in the form of heat or
work can cross the boundary
- volume of a closed system does
not have to be fixed
selected region in space.
-It usually encloses a device that
involves mass flow such as a
compressor.
-Both mass and energy can cross
the boundary of a control volume
 Systems
• Isolated system:
– A closed system that does not communicate with the
surroundings by any means.
• Adiabatic system:
– Is one that occurs without transfer of heat or matter
between a thermodynamic system and its surroundings,
energy is transferred to its surroundings only as work.
• Rigid system:
– A closed system that communicates with the
surroundings by heat only.
 Property of a system
• Intensive properties:
– are those that are independent of the size (mass) of a system,
– such as
• temperature,
• pressure,
• density.
– They are not additive.
• Extensive properties:
– values that are dependant on size of the system
– such as
• mass,
• volume, and
• total energy U.
– They are additive.
 State of a System
• At a given state,
– all the properties of a system have fixed values.
– Thus, if the value of even one property changes,
the state will change to different one.
• In an equilibrium state,
– there are no unbalanced potentials (or driving
forces) within the system.
– A system in equilibrium experiences no changes
when it is isolated from its surroundings.
 Types of equilibrium
• Thermal equilibrium:
– when the temperature is the same throughout the entire system.
• Mechanical equilibrium:
– when there is no change in pressure at any point of the system.
• However, the pressure may vary within the system due to gravitational
effects.
• Phase equilibrium:
– in a two phase system, when the mass of each phase reaches an
equilibrium level.
• Chemical equilibrium:
– when the chemical composition of a system does not change
with time,
• i.e., no chemical reactions occur.
Process & Path

• Process: any change a system undergoes from one

equilibrium state to another is called a process,
– Quasi‐equilibrium process: can be viewed as a sufficiently
slow process that allows the system to adjust itself internally
and remains infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state at
all times.

• Path : the series of states through which a system

passes during a process is called a path.
 Types of Process
• Isothermal
– is a process during which the temperature
remains constant
• Isobaric
– is a process during which the pressure remains
constant
• Isometric (Isochoric)
– is process during which the specific volume
remains constant.
 Cycle
• A system is said to have undergone a cycle if it
returns to its initial state at the end of the
process.
 Total Energy
• The total energy of a system consists of the
kinetic, potential, and internal energies
 Otto Cycle

• An Otto cycle is an idealized thermodynamic cycle that

describes the functioning of a typical spark ignition
piston engine.
 Processes
• The processes are described by:
– Process 0–1 a mass of air is drawn into piston/cylinder arrangement at
constant pressure.
– Process 1–2 is an adiabatic (isentropic) compression of the charge as the
piston moves from bottom dead centre (BDC) to top dead centre (TDC).
– Process 2–3 is a constant-volume heat transfer to the working gas from an
external source while the piston is at top dead centre. This process is
intended to represent the ignition of the fuel-air mixture and the
subsequent rapid burning.
– Process 3–4 is an adiabatic (isentropic) expansion (power stroke).
– Process 4–1 completes the cycle by a constant-volume process in which
heat is rejected from the air while the piston is at bottom dead centre.
– Process 1–0 the mass of air is released to the atmosphere in a constant
pressure process.
 Brayton cycle

• Named after George Brayton that describes

the workings of a constant-pressure heat
engine.
 Ideal Brayton cycle
• 1. isentropic process – ambient air is drawn into the
compressor, where it is pressurized.
• 2. isobaric proces – the compressed air then runs
through a combustion chamber, where fuel is burned,
heating that air—a constant-pressure process, since the
chamber is open to flow in and out.
• 3. isentropic process – the heated, pressurized air then
gives up its energy, expanding through a turbine (or
series of turbines). Some of the work extracted by the
turbine is used to drive the compressor.
• 4. isobaric process – heat rejection (in the atmosphere).
 Specific heat
• The specific heat of a substance may be
defined as the amount of heat that must be
supplied to the substance to raise the
temperature of unit mass of the substance
through one degree
– @ constant Volume :
– @ constant Pressure :
 Heat Capacity Ratio
• Heat Capacity Ratio or Adiabatic Index or
Ratio Of Specific Heats or Poisson constant is
……
– the ratio of
– the heat capacity at constant pressure (CP) to
heat capacity at constant volume (CV).
 Gas Laws
• Boyle law
– Law stating that,
the pressure of a given mass of an ideal gas
is inversely proportional to its volume
at a constant temperature.

• Charles law
– It states that,
if a perfect gas is heated
at constant pressure,
its volume varies directly with
the absolute temperature.
 Characteristic Gas Equation
• It is derived by combining laws of Boyle and Charles.
• If mass remains unchanged = CONSTANT = R
• R is called the Characteristic Gas Constant
• Its value is different for different gases
• Hence pv =TR
• For any m kg of gas,
• V denotes the volume of m kg of gas
• R is replaced by mR
– pV= mRT
 Any Query……..

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