GENDER AND HEALTH

NYARIKI C. KERUBO

Nov 2023
 Gender is related to how we are perceived and
Gender expected to think and act as women and men
because of the way society is organized, not
because of our biological differences (WHO).
Gender refers to the attitudes, feelings, and
behaviors that a given culture associates with a
person’s biological sex.
 The term gender refers to the socially constructed/
designed roles and responsibilities assigned to women,
men, boys and girls in a certain culture or society.
Gender
Gender categorises people as either masculine or
feminine whereby;
-Masculine= what is seen as appropriate for males
-Feminine= what is seen as appropriate for females
 It refers to the social – cultural attributes
associated with being man or woman, boy or girl.
It is a socially constructed term referring to roles,
Gender behaviors, activities, and attributes that a given
society considers appropriate for men and women.
Encompasses psychology
Culturally bound but historically persistent
 WHAT IS SEX?

 Sex is a biologically and physiologically determined

characteristic that defines people as either female or
male.
 Its the biological differentiation between women and
men.
 It is natural
 It is Permanent
 SEX

 Sex categorises people as men and

women or male and females.
 Sex determined by;
– genetic material (chromosomes),
– hormones produced by the body
– the genitalia.
 SEX AND GENDER
Sex and Gender are not interchangeable
terms.
Sex is defined biologically &
physiologically while gender is socially
constructed/coined/ designed.
“Male” and “female” are sex categories,
while “masculine” and “feminine” are
gender categories.
Gender roles are socially constructed
Gender and Sex
 Differences between gender and sex
Gender Sex
• Dynamic: vary within and • Static: does not vary
between cultures
• Universal: same in all
• Geographical: different in
countries in the world
different geographic locations
• Biologically determined
• It is socially determined
• Innate/ inborn
• Gender is a learned behaviour
• Permanent: Generally
• Changes overtime e.g. women
unchanging
are now assuming roles that were
initially assigned to men • Classification
• It is a construct
GENDER ROLES
 Gender roles are tasks/ activities/
duties/responsibilities ascribed to
men/women based on socially
determined characteristics such as
ideologies, values, attitudes,
believes and practices .
 Different societies have different
roles, responsibilities and
expectations for men and women.
 GENDER ROLES
 Change over time & differ between
cultures e.g. in most communities
the role of building houses is
ascribed to men; in Maasai
community it is the women’s duty.
 Gender roles are established
through the influence of the family,
community, schools, religion,
media, policies, peer groups,
workplace, culture (traditions,
forklore, history)
 GENDER ROLES
Gender roles affect division of labour in development.
Gender roles are passed down from parents to
children.
Examples;
Role of heading family is solely for men yet it can be
performed by either sex.
Most cultures define child rearing solely as a female
role excluding males.
 WHAT ARE SEX ROLES
These are roles determined by our biological endorsement
(genetically determined).
They are natural roles
They can not be interchanged
Examples of sex roles include;
Males release sperm
Females conceive and give birth
Females breastfeed
 Examples of gender and sex roles
Gender roles Sex roles
• Rearing • Pregnancy
• Feeding • Breastfeeding
• Household chores • Child birth
• Piloting • Ejaculation of
• Engineering sperms
GENDER
EQUALITY
 GENDER EQUALITY

Gender equality means the absence of

discrimination, on the basis of a person’s sex,
in terms of access to opportunities and
allocation of resources or benefits or
services. e.g. Access to education, land
ownership, parental inheritance, property
ownership, leadership positions e.t.c
It is where men and women are seen as equal.
 GENDER EQUALITY

• It also refers to the equal treatment of women and men,

girls and boys so that they can enjoy the benefits of
development including;
equal access to and control of opportunities and
resources.
 equal enjoyment of human rights, socially valued
goods, opportunities, and resources.
 Gender Equality

G/E is measured in terms of equality of opportunities and

equality of results or reward for labor.
G/E only exists where sex-based discrimination is non-
existent
Gender inequalities = differences between men and
women which systematically empower one group to the
detriment of the other.
 GENDER EQUALITY

MDG 3 sought to promote gender equality and

empower women in all spheres of their lives.
G/E is necessary for achievement of sustainable
development goals (ref. SDGs)
Women’s empowerment is important for it influences
participation in decision making at all levels.
GENDER
EQUITY
Gender equity means fairness and justice in the;
Distribution of benefits and responsibilities.
access to and control of resources, power,
opportunities and services.
GENDER EQUITY
between women and men.
Often requires women-specific projects and
programs to end existing inequities.
It also involves creating a level playing field, where
fair treatment is accorded to both men and women.
Gender Equity
Therefore, gender equity sometimes calls for affirmative action to
allow fair play, especially where two groups are competing for
same resources and one has an advantage over the other.
Examples;
In a mining industry where employees are digging a mine within a
given time frame, it would be fair to allow women more time to
complete their task. This is because women are biologically weak in
strength as compared to men.
In politics, it may be necessary to set aside specific parliamentary
posts for women. This is because certain African communities do not
consider women to possess leadership qualities.
 Gender Equity

• To ensure equity, measures must be taken to

compensate for disadvantages that prevent women
and men from operating on a level playing field.
• Gender equity strategies are used to eventually gain
equality.
AFFIRMATIVE ACTION

Affirmative action is a policy action/ strategy that favors

marginalized/ disadvantaged groups in society, such as women.
While it is a special measure, it is not considered discriminatory
since it aims to accelerate the attainment of equality between
the dominant and marginalized groups.
Affirmative action should not result in unequal or separate
standards
 Gender discrimination

• This is unequal or unfair treatment of

men and women based solely on
their sex rather than on their
individual skills, talents and capability.
Seen in;
• Employment
• Education
• Politics
• Inheritance e.t.c
NB: Give examples of each
GENDER STEREOTYPES

Stereotype is a standardised idea or character.

Gender stereotype emerge from confusion between
gender roles and sex roles.
The society considers certain characteristics and
behaviours of men and women to be naturally
determined or generally acceptable.
Gender stereotypes believe that gender roles are based
on biological differences rather than on socially
constructed expectations.
GENDER STEREOTYPES

Gender stereotypes categorizes men and women

according to rigid constructs and promotes the belief that
these differences are biological rather than social.
Statements like women’s place is in the kitchen, women
cannot make leaders, men do not cry, men are
courageous and women are cowards etc. are stereotyped.
 GENDER GAPS /DISPARITIES

Refers to systematic differences in outcome that men and

women achieve in an individual or particular sector.
It is imbalances/differences that arise due to socially
assigned gender roles/issues i.e. gap between the
number of enrolled male nurses vs. women nurses;
number of female pilots vs. male pilots; piloting is
viewed as masculine and not meant for women.
GENDER ISSUES
 Are specific consequences of inequality, inequity and differential
treatment between women and men.
 Include biases or discriminatory behavior towards individuals on
basis of sex or social roles ascribed to them i.e. denial of a girl-child
education in favor of boy-child on grounds that a girl will get
married & be an investment to another family or increasing men’s
entry fees to an entertainment club on basis that they are more
financially empowered.
 Gender issues affect women & men in society & have an impact on
health and development.
GENDER ISSUES
Gender Concerns

Arise from situations of disparities or

imbalances that raise fear or worry that
cannot be ignored.
Many people react to
disparities/discriminations, having
perceived them as unfair or undesirable
at family level, school, community and
at national level.
Gender Concerns

When a gender imbalance does not cause anxiety in

people then it remains a gender disparity i.e. early and
forced marriages are encouraged in some communities
as much as it is a gender issue.
It becomes a concern when majority of people in the
community realize it is not good and should be stopped
Gender sensitivity

It is the ability to recognize gender issues

It is the recognition that gender roles are
socially constructed and can be changed.
 Gender Responsiveness

Refers to taking into account gender gaps and gender issues to inform
plans, implementation and design of any processes/programs.
It is a high level of gender sensitivity where one is not only able to
recognise, but also is empowered to address gender issues and
hence take action to solve a gender problem
A gender responsive budget would require an analysis of actual
expenditure and revenue of men vs. women and adjusted
appropriately to address any gender inequality.
GENDER RESPONSIVENESS

Gender responsiveness refers actions

undertaken to address gender unfairness
and discrimination
Promotes equity and equality for women
and men to include their empowerment
and advancement.
What is Gender Mainstreaming?

A strategy for achieving gender

equality.
Ensures women & men, girls & boys
have equal access to & control over
resources, opportunities & benefits at
all levels.
Gender Mainstreaming

Involves integrating a gender perspective when design,

implementation, M&E, development of policies, plans,
programs, projects and legislation at all levels
Gender awareness is enhanced by highlighting existing
gender differences (needs, priorities, constraints,
opportunities)
Ultimate goal of gender mainstreaming is to achieve
gender sensitivity, equity and equality.
 Gender Mainstreaming UN
 “ is the process of assessing the implication for women and men
of any planned action including legislation, policies or programs
in all areas and at all levels .
It is a strategy of making women's as well as men's concerns and
experiences an integral dimension of the design,
implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and
programs in all political, economic and societal spheres so that
women and men benefit equally and inequality is not
perpetuated”
Gender Mainstreaming
Gender mainstreaming is not only a question
of social justice but is necessary for ensuring
equitable and sustainable human
development.
Gender mainstreaming approach does not
look at women in isolation but rather looks
at both women and men as actors and
beneficiaries in the development process.
Background of Gender Mainstreaming

In pre-independence days white female philanthropists

supported women specific activities
1960s into 1970s Govt enhanced the program
1975 UN Women’s Conference demanded all
governments set up instruments to deal with women’s
issues
1976 the government established the Women’s Bureau in
the department of Social Services
 Background of Gender Mainstreaming

The concept of gender mainstreaming was first proposed at the 1985 third world conference on women in
Nairobi and was formally featured in 1995 at the forth world conference on women in Beijing and was cited
in the document that resulted from the conference

The Beijing Platform For Action

The platform particularly stated ;

“in addressing the inequality between men and women in the sharing of power and decision making at all
levels ,governments and other actors should promote an active and visible policy of mainstreaming a
gender perspective in all policies and programmes so that before decisions are taken ,an analysis is made of
the effects on men and women respectively ”
 Background Cont.
In 2006 the head of public service asked all ministries and state
corporations to appoint gender officers and establish gender units
2007 Ministry of Gender, Sports, Culture and Social Services created.
Now Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Development.
Its mandate is to spearhead mainstreaming of gender in public
policy, plans and programs.
Gender Commission established to play oversight role over public
institutions in G/M
Social, political, and Institutional resistance to G/M witnessed.
Background Cont.
In July 2009 gender mainstreaming became a requirement
in the performance contract of all Permanent Secretaries &
CEOs of all state corporations.
Gender Responsive Budgeting

Refers to process that responds to specific needs of women, men, girls

and boys in setting priorities in allocation of resources.
Gender Responsive Budgets highlight the differential impacts of
resources allocation in various sectors as well as enable dialogue on
ways to address these gaps. Gender budgets do not only look at
monetary numbers but also policy analysis, implementation and M&E
of programmes and the impact they have.
Gender Responsive budgeting goes to the heart of mainstreaming
gender in government activities.
 Gender and Development (GAD)

GAD aims at meeting women and men’s practical and strategic gender
needs.
Should be considered across all sectors and at all levels of broad
development policies
 Challenges the existing division of labour and power relations.
Looking at only women is half the problem solved
Looking at women in relation to men and the way in which relations
between the two are socially constructed is fully solving the problem.
 GAD is more confrontational approach based on the premise that if
women have to be part of mainstream; men have to be part of the
change.
 The study of the different roles of women and men
in order to understand what they do, what
resources they have and what their needs and
Gender Analysis priorities are. A gender analysis provides the
basis for addressing inequalities in policies,
programmes and projects.
G/A also refers to the variety of methods used to
understand the relationships between men
and women, their access to resources, their
activities, and the constraints they face relative
to each other.
 Gender analysis seeks to understand the differing
priorities, needs, activities and responsibilities
of men and women, and boys and girls:
Gender Analysis • at multiple levels
• across different life stages
• and in the various roles they play.
Provides the basis for taking steps to address
disadvantages, and for devising remedial/
preventive interventions.
Theories of gender
Class Reading
Gender analysis frameworks
The 4 domains in relation to different arenas of life

Access to Assets:

Includes information on gender relations that

affect access to the resources necessary for a
person to be a productive participant in
communities and nations. These include
tangible assets such as land, capital, and tools,
and intangible assets such as knowledge,
education, and information.
Practices and Participation:
The norms that influence men and women’s behavior also structure the
type of activities they engage in and their roles and responsibilities. This
dimension of the framework captures information on men and women’s
different roles, the timing and place where their activities occur, their
capacity to participate in different types of economic, political, and social
activities, and their decision-making.
Beliefs and Perceptions:
Draws from a cultural belief system or norms about what it
means to be a man or woman in a specific society. These
beliefs affect men and women’s behavior, dress, participation
and decision-making capacity. They also facilitate or limit men
and women’s access to education, services, and economic
opportunities.
Institutions, Laws, and Policies:
This dimension focuses on information about men and
women’s different formal and informal rights, and how
they are dissimilarly affected by policies and rules
governing institutions, including the health system.
Power:
Pervades all domains– it informs who has, can acquire and can
expend the authority to acquire and expend assets. It affects
decisions over one’s body and children. It determines if an
individual can take advantage of opportunities, can exercise
rights, move about and associate with others, enter into legal
contracts, and run for and hold office. Power also determines the
way men and women are treated by different types of
institutions, policies, and laws.
 Gender analysis frameworks
1. Harvard gender roles analytical framework: It concentrates on women’s and men’s
activity profiles, and the differences in access to and control over resources. It focuses on
the roles of women and men and not on their different relations.

2. Moser framework (practical and strategic needs): It examines women's productive,

reproductive and community management roles in society. It identifies disparities between
practical (immediate) and strategic (longer-term) gender needs.

3. Gender analysis matrix (GAM): It is based on four levels of society (women, men,
household and community) and four types of impact (labour, time, resources and socio-
cultural factors).