DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

FUNCTION:
-Organ system responsible for breaking down
large particles for cellular absorption.
-Includes six processes: ingestion, secretion,
mixing and propulsion, digestion, absorption,
and defecation
SIX DIGESTIVE PROCESSES:
• Digestive organs are divided into two:
gastrointestinal tract and accessory organs
 Gastrointestinal Tract
• A hollow tube that starts with the mouth, and
continues to esophagus, stomach, and
intestines.
• The gastrointestinal tract is composed of three
major organs:
1. Stomach
2. Small Intestine
3. Large Intestine
• The gastrointestinal tract has a hollow area
called lumen, surrounded by a four-layered
wall.
MUCOSA- epithelial tissue that secretes mucus
and enzymes; it protects and lubricates the
gastrointestinal tract.

SUBMUCOSA- connective tissue that supplies

nutrients to the gastrointestinal tract.

MUSCULARIS- Composed of longitidunal and

circular muscles that aids in the digestion process

SEROSA- Outermost layer that protects and

lubricates the gastrointestinal tract.
FUNCTION OF GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT
DIGESTION- Process where large food particle is
broken into smaller pieces mechanically and
chemically. It can be:

MECHANICAL DIGESTION- Breaks large food

particles into chyme (disintegrated food particles)
CHEMICAL DIGESTION- Transforms large
macromolecules to their monomeric unit.
 STOMACH
• It is a large, muscular pear-shaped organ
• It is multi-chambered organ located crosswise
in the abdominal cavity.
• The main function of stomach is for SEMI-
DIGESTION. It turns solid food to thin liquid or
chyme BY THE ACTION OF PEPSIN AND
HYDROCHLORIC ACID.
• It also kills the bacteria present in the food
 INTESTINES
• Also called as bowel or bowels
• These is an organ that extends from the lower
end of the stomach to the lower opening of
the digestive tract called anus.
• It has two sections: small intestines and large
intestines.
 SMALL INTESTINE
• A passage from the stomach to the large
intestines.
• The stomach and small intestines is separated
by pylorus.
• Has three segments:
1. Duodenum- It is where semi-digested food enters
from the stomach. It helps to digest food using bile
from gall bladder, liver, and pancreas.
2. Jejunum- The middle section of the intestines that
brings food from duodenum to ileum using wave
like contraction.
3. Ileum- Largest part of the intestines where food
nutrients are absorbed before entering the large
intestines.
 LARGE INTESTINES
• Much broader than the small intestines
• Main function of the large intestines is to
absorb water and salts from the material that
is not yet digested.
• It also helps get rid of any waste products left.
• Has three sections:
1. Cecum- Take liquid food into the colon.
2. Colon- Absorbs salts when needed and
where water reabsorption happens.
-Divided into three: ASCENDING
COLON>TRANSVERSE COLON>DESCENDING
COLON
3. Rectum- Waste collector
 Accessories of Digestive System
LIVER
-Largest internal organ of the body.
-Secretes bile that helps to digest fats
-Metabolic waste material are produced by the
liver through the process of deamination. The
process of deamination produces urea from
toxic substances like alcohol.
GALL BLADDER-A small hollow organ where the
bile is stored from the liver. It serves as a
passageway where bile is transferred to the
small intestines.

PANCREAS-Produces digestive enzyme that helps

digest the food in the small intestine, and
produces insulin and glucagon that controls
sugar level.
 THE DIGESTIVE PROCESS
1. Food is ingested by taking it into the mouth
2. Food is masticated by the mouth with the aid
of the teeth
1. INCISORS- Slicing
2. CANINES- Tearing
3. PREMOLARS and MOLARS

3. crushing and grinding

3. While masticating, three pairs of salivary glands
(sublingual, submandibular and parotid) releases saliva
containing enzyme amylase that will chemically digest
carbohydrates. The masticated food mixed with saliva
will be called bolus
4. The bolus will enter the pharynx by
deglutition or swallowing. The pharynx will lead
the food in the esophagus.
5. When the bolus entered the esophagus,
peristalsis begin. Peristalsis is the process where
muscles relax and contract causing the food to
move down the digestive tract.

6. In the esophagus, valves are found that

regulates food entry. If the valve is open, it
would let the food enter the stomach.
5. Semi digestion in the stomach begins and
usually takes two to three hours. The glands in
the mucosa of stomach releases Hydrochloric
acid (HCl) that initiates the release of pepsin
from other gland cells. Pepsin is the enzyme that
chemically digest the proteins of the food
particle.
6. Together with water, and hydrochloric acid,
pepsin forms gastrcic juices that liquefies the
food particles into chyme.
7. The chyme would pass then to the pylorus
then enter the small intestine.
7. The chyme will enter the
duodenum, and will be digested
thoroughly using bile. The bile
contains different pancreatic
enzymes that chemically digests
proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates.
8. Then it would travel to jejunum,
then enter to ileum. The nutrients
of the food will be absorbed by the
blood stream via the villi of ileum.
9. The remaining material will enter the cecum
then to the colon. The colon will absorb salts
and reabsorbs water.
10. The remaining material then will enter the
rectum to become waste material.
Foods and Nutrients
Food is eaten and digested in the body to
allow the absorption of energy and
nutrients.
There are two different types of nutrients:
• macronutrients;
• micronutrients.
There are three macronutrients that are
essential for health.

These are:
• carbohydrate;
• protein;
• fat.

Macronutrients are measured in grams (g).

 macronutrients
Carbohydrate

-Macronutrients that provides energy.

-The two types of carbohydrate that
provide dietary energy are fibers and
sugars.

1 gram of carbohydrate provides 4kcal

(17kJ).
Structure of carbohydrate

All types of carbohydrate are compounds of carbon, hydrogen

and oxygen.

They can be classified in many different ways. One common

way is according to their structure.

Sugars

Sugars come from a variety of foods. Some are within the

cellular structure of the food, e.g. in fruit or vegetables. These
are called intrinsic sugars.

Other sugars are not bound into the cellular structure of the
food, e.g. in milk or honey. These are called extrinsic sugars.
EXAMPLES OF SUGARS

Glucose, Fructose, Maltose, Lactose,

Galactose

EXAMPLES OF FIBERS

Starch, Glycogen
Can you give some examples of sources of
sugar in the diet?

• Fruit and vegetables (fructose)

• Milk and dairy products (lactose)
• Honey
• Fruit juice
• Table sugar (glucose)
• Sweets and chocolate
Fibrous Carbohydrate

Starch is found in a variety of foods. It

is made up of many sugar molecules.

Can you give some examples of sources

of starch in the diet?

• Potatoes
• Bread
• Rice
• Pasta

Cereal and cereal products are the main

source of carbohydrate for adults in
Britain.
Protein

Protein is essential for growth and

repair and keeping cells healthy.

Protein also provides energy:

1 gram of protein provides 4 kcal (17
kJ).
Structure of protein

Protein is made up of building blocks

called amino acids. Different foods
contain different amounts and different
combinations of amino acids.

Protein from animal sources (e.g. meat,

fish, eggs and dairy products) contains
the full range of essential amino acids
needed by the body.

Protein from plant sources (e.g. pulses

and cereals) typically contain fewer
essential amino acids.
Sources of protein

Animal:
• meat;
• fish;
• eggs;
• milk;
• cheese.

Plant:
• nuts;
• seeds;
• pulses, e.g. beans, lentils;
• mycoprotein;
• soya products.
Eating different types of protein can
ensure sufficient intake of essential amino
acids which are needed by the body.

Can you think of dishes which combine

protein from different sources?

For example:
• Baked beans on wholegrain toast
• Breakfast cereal with milk
• Cottage pie with vegetables
• Hummus and salad wrap
• Fish pie and peas
• Spinach and chickpea curry with rice
Fat

Fat provides fat-soluble vitamins A, D,

E and K, and is necessary for their
absorption. It is also important for
essential fatty acids the body cannot
make.

Fat provides a concentrated source of

energy:
1 gram of fat provides 9 kcal (37 kJ).

Foods that contain a lot of fat provide a

lot of energy.
Structure of fat

Fat is made up of different types of fatty

acids and glycerol.

The structure of the fatty acids

determines:
• their effect on our health;
• their characteristics, e.g. melting
point.
Structure of fat

Depending on their chemical structure,

fatty acids are usually classified as:
• saturated;
• monounsaturated;
• polyunsaturated.

High intakes of saturated fat may raise

blood cholesterol and increase the risk of
heart disease and stroke.

A diet high in unsaturates is associated

with a lower level of blood cholesterol
and reduces the risk of heart disease.
This table shows sources of fat in the British diet.

Type of fat Source

Meat and meat products (23%)
Cereals/cereal products (incl. cakes and biscuits) (19%)
Total fat Milk and milk products (14%)
Fat spreads (12%)
Potatoes and savoury snacks (10%)
Eggs and fish (7%)

Saturated fat Milk & milk product (24%)

Meat & meat products (22%)
Cereal products (18%)
Fat spreads (11%)
Fried potatoes/savoury snacks (6%)
Eggs & egg dishes (3%)

Unsaturated fat Meat & meat products (27%)

Cereal products (17%)
Potatoes cooked in oil & savoury snacks (12%)
Fat & spreads (11%)
Milk & milk products (10%)
All foods provide different types of fatty acids in
varying proportions.

Butter is often described as a ‘saturated fat’

because it has more saturated fatty acids than
unsaturated fatty acids.

Most vegetable oils are described as

‘unsaturated fats’ as they have more mono- and
polyunsaturated fatty acids than saturated.

Most saturated fats are solid at room temperature

and tend to come from animal sources.

Most unsaturated fats are liquid at room

temperature and are usually from plant sources.
Micronutrients

There are two types of micronutrients:

• vitamins;
• minerals.

Vitamins and minerals are needed in

much smaller amounts than
macronutrients. Their amounts are
measured in milligrams (mg) and
micrograms (μg).

(1mg = 0.001g)

(1μg = 0.001mg).
Vitamins

There are two groups of vitamins:

• fat-soluble vitamins, which can be

stored in the body, e.g. vitamins A and
D.

• water-soluble vitamins, which cannot

be stored in the body and are therefore
required daily, e.g. B vitamins and
vitamin C.
Fat soluble vitamins

Vitamin A

Vitamin A is needed for:

• dim light vision;
• healthy skin and eyes;
• resistance to infection.

Vitamin A is found pre-formed in liver and

whole milk. It can also be produced from beta-
carotene provided by dark green leafy
vegetables, carrots and orange coloured fruit.

In the UK, margarine must be fortified with

vitamin A and vitamin D. Vitamin A and D are
also often voluntarily added to reduced fat
spreads.
Deficiency on Vitamin A:

-Nyctalopia- Night Blindness

-Xeropthalmia
-Bitot’s Spot
-Xeropthalmia, corneal scarring and
ulceration
Vitamin D

Vitamin D is needed for the absorption of

calcium from foods to keep bones and
teeth healthy.

A lack of vitamin D causes rickets in

children, where the legs are bent, and
osteomalacia in adults, which causes pain
in bones and muscles.

We get most of our vitamin D via the

action of sunlight on skin during the
summer months. Vitamin D is also
provided by the diet from oily fish, meat,
eggs, fortified breakfast cereals and
margarine/spreads.
Deficiency of Vitamin D:

-Rickets
-Osteoporosis
Water soluble vitamins

The B vitamins

There are many different B vitamins and

each has a specific function in the body.

These include:
• vitamin B1 (Thiamin);
• vitamin B2 (Riboflavin);
• vitamin B3 (Niacin);
• vitamin B6;
• vitamin B12;
• folate/folic acid.
Thiamin (vitamin B1)

Thiamin is required to release energy

from carbohydrate.

It is also involved in the normal

function of the nervous system.
Deficiency on thiamin causes beri-beri.
Sources of Thiamin (vitamin B1)

• Whole grains.
• Nuts.
• Meat (especially pork).
• Fruit and vegetables.
• Fortified breakfast cereals.

Did you know?

In the UK, white and brown bread flour
are fortified with thiamin by law (and
also with calcium, iron and niacin).
Riboflavin (vitamin B2)

Riboflavin is required to release energy

from protein, carbohydrate and fat.

It is also involved in the transport and

use of iron in the body.
Sources of Riboflavin (vitamin B2)

• Milk
• Eggs.
• Rice.
• Fortified breakfast cereals.
• Liver.
• Legumes.
• Mushrooms.
• Green vegetables.

Did you know?

Legumes are the fruits or seeds of
anything that comes in a pod, e.g. beans,
peas, lentils.
Niacin (Vitamin B3)

Niacin is required for the release of

energy from food.

Niacin is also required for the normal

function of the skin, mucous
membranes and nervous system.
Deficiency causes Pellagra.
Sources of Niacin

• Meat.
• Wheat and maize flour.
• Eggs.
• Dairy products.
• Yeast.
Vitamin C

Vitamin C is needed to make collagen.

This is required for the structure and
function of skin, cartilage and bones.

It is an important nutrient for healing

cuts and wounds.

Did you know?

Vitamin C can help with the
absorption of iron when foods or drink
containing both vitamin C and iron are
eaten at the same meal.
Sources of vitamin C

• Fresh fruit especially citrus fruits and

berries.
• Green vegetables.
• Peppers.
• Tomatoes.
• New potatoes.

Can you name some citrus fruit?

Lime, orange, grapefruit, tangerine,
lemon, clementine.

How many different types of berries

can you think of?
Blackberries, blackcurrants,
strawberries, raspberries , blueberries,
cranberries.
 Scurvy
Cause: lack of vitamin C
Problem: irritability, swelling
and hemorrhage especially over
long bones, death from
hemorrhage and cardiac failure
Minerals

Minerals are inorganic substances

required by the body in small amounts
for a variety of different functions.

The body requires different amounts of

each mineral.

People have different requirements,

according to their:
• age;
• gender;
• physiological state (e.g. pregnancy).
Calcium

The body contains more calcium than

any other mineral. It is essential for a
number of important functions such as
the maintenance of bones and teeth,
blood clotting and normal muscle
function.

Did you know?

The skeleton contains about 99% of

the body’s calcium with
approximately 1kg present in adult
bones.
Sources of calcium

Milk, cheese and other dairy products

provide about half of the calcium in the
UK diet.

Bread is also a source of calcium in the

UK because white and brown flour is
fortified with calcium by law.

Calcium is also provided by :

• broccoli;
• cabbage;
• fortified soya products;
• fish eaten with the bones, e.g. sardines,
tinned salmon and whitebait.
Iron

Iron is essential for the formation of

haemoglobin in red blood cells.

Red blood cells carry oxygen and

transport it around the body.

Iron is also required for normal

metabolism and removing waste
substances from the body.

Did you know?

There are two types of iron; one from
animals sources and the other from
plant sources.
Sources of iron

• Liver.
• Red meat.
• Pulses.
• Nuts.
• Eggs.
• Dried fruits.
• Fish.
• Whole grains.
• Dark green leafy vegetables.
Iron in the diet

A lack of iron in the diet means that the

stores in the body will run out.

This can lead to anemia.

Women and teenage girls need to ensure

they have enough because their
requirements are higher than those of
men of the same age due to menstruation.

Did you know?

More than 2 billion people worldwide
suffer from iron deficiency anaemia,
making it the most common nutritional
deficiency.
Sodium

Sodium is found in all cells and body

fluids.

It is needed for regulating the amount of

water and other substances in the body.

Did you know?

Sodium is a component of table salt,
known as sodium chloride (NaCl).
Sources of sodium

Most raw foods contain very small

amounts of sodium chloride (salt).

Salt is often added during the

processing, preparation, preservation
and serving of foods.

About 20% of salt we eat is added at

home during cooking and at the table.

How can we reduce salt when

preparing and cooking food?
Sodium in the diet

Sodium intakes in the UK are considered to

be too high. It is unlikely that we would lack
sodium.

High sodium intake is considered to be one

of the risk factors for high blood pressure,
which may lead to heart disease and stroke.

Did you know?

It is recommended that adults and children
11 years and over not to have more than 6g
of salt per day. Young children should eat
less.
Deficiency in Iodine causes goiter